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Archduke Franz Ferdinand

The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Assassination in 1914 sparked the beginning of World War I.

The Allied Powers

A coalition of countries in World War I. Key members included France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, and later the United States.

The Central Powers

A coalition of countries in World War I. Major members included Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.

Armenian Genocide

The mass extermination and forced deportation of Armenians by the Ottoman Empire during World War I, resulting in the deaths of approximately 1.5 million Armenians.

Marxist-Leninist Theory

A political theory developed by Karl Marx and furthered by Vladimir Lenin, advocating for a revolutionary overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of a proletarian state.

Vladimir Lenin

A Russian revolutionary and politician who led the Bolshevik Party and played a key role in the October Revolution of 1917, establishing a socialist government in Russia.

Bolshevik Revolution

The 1917 uprising in Russia led by the Bolshevik Party, which resulted in the overthrow of the Provisional Government and the establishment of a communist government.

Communism

A political and economic ideology advocating for a classless society where all property is communally owned, eliminating private ownership.

Lenin’s New Economic Policy

A policy introduced in 1921 that allowed limited capitalist measures to boost the Soviet economy after the civil war, temporarily restoring some private ownership and market mechanisms.

Treaty of Versailles

The peace treaty signed in 1919 that officially ended World War I, imposing heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany, significantly reshaping the political landscape of Europe.

Reparations

Payments imposed on a defeated nation to compensate for war damages.

League of Nations

An intergovernmental organization founded after World War I to promote peace and cooperation among countries, intended to prevent future conflicts.

Mandate System

A system established by the League of Nations after World War I to administer territories formerly under Ottoman and German rule, allowing for their governance until they could stand alone.

Wilsonian idealism

The belief that the United States should promote democracy and peace globally, often associated with President Woodrow Wilson's foreign policy during and after World War I.

The Great Depression

A severe worldwide economic downturn that began in 1929, characterized by high unemployment, falling production, and widespread poverty.

John Maynard Keynes

A British economist who advocated for increased government spending and lower taxes to stimulate demand and pull the global economy out of the Great Depression.

Nazi Party

A far-right political party in Germany led by Adolf Hitler, known for its totalitarian ideology, extreme nationalism, and the implementation of fascist policies during the 1930s and World War II.

Popular Front

A coalition of left-wing parties in France during the 1930s, aimed at combating the rise of fascism and addressing social issues through reforms.

Fascism

A far-right authoritarian political ideology that emphasizes strong centralized power, nationalistic sentiments, and often a dictatorial leadership, opposing liberal democracy and socialism.

Hitler

The leader of the Nazi Party and Chancellor of Germany, known for his role in the rise of fascism and the implementation of policies that led to World War II and the Holocaust.

Mussolini

An Italian politician and leader of the National Fascist Party, known for establishing a totalitarian regime and forming an alliance with Hitler during World War II.

Spanish Civil War

A conflict from 1936 to 1939 between the Republicans, who supported a democratic government, and the Nationalists, led by Francisco Franco, resulting in a Nationalist victory and the establishment of a dictatorship.

Francisco Franco

The authoritarian leader of Spain who ruled from 1939 until his death in 1975, establishing a military dictatorship after the Spanish Civil War.

Joseph Stalin

A revolutionary leader of the Soviet Union who implemented policies of rapid industrialization and collectivization, and played a key role in World War II.

Stalin’s Five-Year Plan

A series of nationwide economic plans aimed at rapid industrialization and collectivization of agriculture in the Soviet Union, implemented from 1928 to 1938.

Liquidation of the Kulaks

The policy of eliminating the Kulak class as part of Stalin's collectivization efforts, resulting in widespread repression, deportations, and death.

Appeasement

The diplomatic policy of making concessions to an aggressive power to maintain peace, notably used by European leaders in the 1930s with Nazi Germany.

Isolationism

A foreign policy strategy aimed at avoiding involvement in international conflicts and wars, advocating for a focus on domestic affairs.

Allied Powers

The coalition of nations, including the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom.

Blitzkrieg

A military strategy used by Germany during World War II characterized by rapid, coordinated attacks using aircraft and ground forces to overwhelm opponents.

Axis Powers

The coalition of nations led by Germany, Italy, and Japan during World War II.

Winston Churchill

British Prime Minister during World War II, known for his leadership and oratory skills. He inspired British resistance against Nazi Germany and played a crucial role in the Allied victory.

Sieges at Leningrad and Stalingrad

Critical battles on the Eastern Front during World War II, marked by prolonged assaults and significant losses for both the Soviets and the Germans, ultimately leading to Soviet victories.

Holocaust

The systematic genocide of six million Jews and millions of others by the Nazi regime during World War II.

Nuremberg Laws

Racist laws enacted in 1935 that stripped Jews of citizenship and legal rights in Nazi Germany.

Ghettos

Segregated areas where Jews were forced to live under harsh conditions during the Holocaust.

Labor camps

Detention centers where Jews and other targeted groups were forced to work under brutal conditions, often leading to death.

Death camps(Extermination camps)

Facilities designed for the systematic murder of disenfranchised individuals, primarily during the Holocaust.

Einstein’s relativity theory

A groundbreaking scientific theory formulated by Albert Einstein that revolutionized the understanding of space, time, and gravity, consisting of special relativity and general relativity.

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

A fundamental theory in quantum mechanics that states the more precisely the position of a particle is known, the less precisely its momentum can be known, and vice versa.

Lost Generation

A group of American writers who were disillusioned by the aftermath of World War I, expressing their feelings of alienation and loss in their works. Notable figures include Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald.

Spinning Jenny

A multi-spindle spinning frame invented by James Hargreaves in 1764, which revolutionized the textile industry by allowing one worker to spin multiple threads simultaneously.

Corn Laws

A series of laws in Britain that imposed restrictions and tariffs on imported grain, aimed at protecting domestic agriculture while leading to higher food prices for consumers.

Irish Potato Famine

A catastrophic event in the mid-19th century caused by potato blight, leading to mass starvation and emigration in Ireland.

Second Industrial Revolution

A period of rapid industrial growth in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was characterized by advancements in steel production, coal mining, electricity, and chemical processes.

Manchester, England

A major industrial city known for its textile manufacturing and significant role in the Industrial Revolution.

The Long Depression

A prolonged economic downturn that followed the Panic of 1873, lasting until the late 1870s, marked by deflation, high unemployment, and stagnation in industrial growth.

Protectionism

An economic policy of restraining trade between countries through tariffs, quotas, and other regulations to protect domestic industries from foreign competition.

Tariffs

Taxes imposed on imported goods to raise revenue and protect domestic industries.

Proletariat

The working class, particularly those who do not own the means of production and must sell their labor to survive.

Bourgeosie

The capitalist class who own the means of production and are often contrasted with the proletariat.

Class Identity

The social and economic characteristics that define a group within a society, influencing their interests and political behavior.

Cult of Domesticity

A prevailing value system among the upper and middle classes in the 19th century that emphasized women's roles as wives and mothers, promoting the idea of women as moral guardians of the home.

Conservatism

A political philosophy promoting traditional institutions, social stability, and resistance to rapid change, often emphasizing hierarchy and authority.

Liberalism

A political ideology advocating for civil liberties, individual rights, and democratic governance, often supporting free markets and social progress.

Concert of Europe

A system of alliances and diplomatic agreements among European powers in the early 19th century aimed at maintaining the balance of power and preventing revolutions.

Metternich

Austrian diplomat and statesman, key figure in the Concert of Europe, known for his conservative policies and efforts to suppress revolutionary movements.

Carlsbad Decrees

A series of repressive measures enacted in 1819 by the German Confederation to suppress liberal and nationalist movements in German states.

Greek Independence

A successful war of independence from the Ottoman Empire that occurred between 1821 and 1832, leading to the establishment of Greece as a sovereign nation.

Decembrists Revolt

A failed uprising in Russia in December 1825, initiated by a group of army officers who sought to reform the government and abolish serfdom.

July Revolution

A revolution in France in July 1830 that resulted in the overthrow of Charles X and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under Louis-Philippe.

Polish Rebellion

An uprising in 1830 against Russian rule, aimed at achieving independence for Poland. The rebellion ultimately failed, leading to harsh reprisals by the Russian government.

French Revolution of 1848

A series of events in France that led to the overthrow of King Louis-Philippe and the establishment of the Second Republic, driven by social and economic discontent.

Louis-Philippe

King of France from 1830 to 1848, he ruled during a period marked by social unrest and economic challenges, ultimately leading to his abdication.

Napoleon III

The first President of France and later Emperor, he played a significant role in the expansion of the French Empire and modernization of France during the mid-19th century.

German Revolutions of 1848

A series of interconnected uprisings across various German states aimed at achieving national unity and democratic reforms, ultimately leading to a failure to establish a unified Germany.

Frederick William IV

King of Prussia from 1840 to 1861, he was known for his conservative policies and reluctance to support the unification of Germany during the revolutions of 1848.

Frankfurt Assembly

A gathering of German delegates in 1848 aimed at unifying Germany and drafting a constitution, which ultimately failed to achieve its goals.

Revolutions in the Austrian Empire in 1848

A series of uprisings across various regions of the Austrian Empire, including Hungary and Italy, striving for national autonomy and liberal reforms, but ultimately suppressed by the monarchy.

Magyar and Czech Revolts

Nationalist uprisings in Hungary and the Czech lands during the 1848 revolutions, seeking greater autonomy and independence from the Austrian Empire.

Francis Joseph

Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary who reigned from 1848 to 1916, known for his conservative policies and opposition to nationalist movements.

Czar Nicholas I

Emperor of Russia from 1825 to 1855, known for his autocratic rule and involvement in the suppression of revolutions in Europe.

Czar Alexander II

Emperor of Russia from 1855 to 1881, known for his reforms including the emancipation of the serfs and modernization efforts.

Czar Alexander III

Emperor of Russia from 1881 to 1894, known for his conservative policies and repression of dissent following the assassination of his father, Alexander II.

Sergei Witte

A Russian statesman and finance minister who played a key role in modernizing the Russian economy and promoting industrialization in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Czar Nicholas II

The last Emperor of Russia, ruling from 1894 until his abdication in 1917 during the Russian Revolution.

Revolution of 1905

A wave of mass political and social unrest in the Russian Empire that led to limited reforms, including the establishment of the Duma and a constitutional monarchy.

October Manifesto

A document issued by Czar Nicholas II in 1905 that promised civil liberties and the establishment of the Duma as part of the response to the Revolution of 1905.

Liberalism

An ideological movement advocating for individual freedoms, representative government, and the protection of civil rights, often opposing absolute monarchy and promoting economic freedom.

John Stuart Mill

A British philosopher and political economist known for his contributions to liberal thought, particularly his advocacy for individual liberty and utilitarianism.

Jeremy Bentham

An English philosopher and social reformer regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism, emphasizing the greatest happiness principle.

Utilitarianism

A moral philosophy that evaluates actions based on their consequences, aiming to maximize overall happiness or utility.

Chartism

Named for a document called The People’s Charter by William Lovett in 1839. Called for universal male suffrage, regardless of wealth; sought to reform laws that they believed oppressed the people.

Socialism

The means of production are owned by society or controlled by the society as a whole, and are used for the public good. The government is heavily involved in production and the distribution of wealth.

Utopian Socialism

Henri Saint-Simon—Engineers, scientists, and businesspeople could work together to transform society. He believed his society would be based on Christian values of charity and lovingkindness.

Henri Saint-Simon

A French philosopher and early socialist thinker known for his advocacy of collectivism and the belief that society should be organized based on scientific principles. He proposed a society where industrialists, scientists, and engineers would work collaboratively to promote social welfare and ensure equal access to resources.

Karl Marx

Wanted to develop a socialist system on scientific principles; he became a close observer and critic of European capitalism to understand its shortcomings. Thought technology shaped economics, when then shaped politics and other aspects of the culture; a society based on handmade goods and horsepower would generate a different political system than one based on factories and steam engines. Saw history as an unending story of class struggle; a working class (proletariat) would eventually overthrow the owners of the means of production (bourgeoisie); this cycle was inevitable (historical determinism).

Communist Manifesto

A political pamphlet by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels published in 1848, outlining the principles of communism, the class struggle between the proletariat and bourgeoisie, and the call for revolution to establish a classless society.

Capital (Das Kapital)

A foundational text by Karl Marx, published in 1867, that analyzes the capitalist system's dynamics. It discusses how capitalism operates through the exploitation of labor, the production of goods, and the accumulation of capital, emphasizing the role of class struggle between the proletariat (working class) and the bourgeoisie (capitalist class).

Historical Determinism

The theory that historical events are determined by preceding social, economic, and environmental factors, leading to predictable outcomes in societal development.

Anarchism

The theory that all governments should be abolished, and that society should be based on the voluntary cooperation of all members.

Mikhail Bakunin

Russian born to a noble family, studied philosophy, met several socialist leaders; eventually, he became disillusioned with socialism, because he believed that once the capitalist governments had been overthrown, the socialist governments would seize power themselves. Believed that all property should be controlled by groups of workers who ran their own communities. This idea became known as collective anarchism. Thought the revolution could only be carried out by small, tightly knit “underground” groups that operated secretly.

Conservative Party in Britain

Protected the interests of wealthy landowners.

Liberal Party in Britain

Passed social reforms like national education system and secret ballots when voting; declined in power after 1918 (end of WWI).

Labour Party in Britain

Working-class Britons had a hard time getting full support from the Liberals, so they formed a party; Labour grew in power after WWI.

Conservative Parties in France

Favored monarchy and tried to limit citizen participation in government.

Socialist Parties in France

Supported workers’ rights and popular sovereignty.

Social Democratic Party in Germany

Diverging views within the party; Some believed change was possible without violent revolution, some were Marxists who believed revolution was inevitable.

Bolsheviks in Russia

Marxists who led the October Revolution in 1917, became the Communist Party.

Sunday School Movement

Provided basic education for working-class children; By 1850, more than 2 million children were enrolled in weekly Sunday school classes.