Psychology: Unit 0

Psychodynamic Perspective

A psychological approach that emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences on behavior.

Behavioral Perspective

A psychological viewpoint that focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they're learned through interaction with the environment.

Humanistic Perspective

A psychological approach that emphasizes personal growth and the concept of self-actualization.

Cognitive Perspective

A viewpoint that examines internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving.

Biological Perspective

A psychological approach that looks at the physiological and genetic influences on behavior.

Evolutionary Perspective

A viewpoint that considers how evolutionary principles such as natural selection influence human behavior.

Sociocultural Perspective

A psychological approach that examines how social and cultural factors influence behavior and mental processes.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

A comprehensive approach that considers biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding behavior and mental health.

Cultural norms

Shared expectations and rules that guide behavior within a particular culture.

Cognitive Biases

systematic error in thinking that occurs when people process and interpret information in their surroundings, influencing their decisions and judgments.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs.

Hindsight bias

The inclination to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias characterized by an overestimation of one's abilities or knowledge.

Qualitative research

Research that focuses on understanding the meaning and experiences of participants through non-numerical data.

Quantitative research

Research that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to identify patterns and test hypotheses.

Research design

The overall strategy or plan for conducting research, including methods and procedures.

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment to observe its effects.

Random assignment

The process of assigning participants to different groups in a study by chance to reduce bias.

Case study

An in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event to explore complex issues.

Correlation

A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables are related.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to identify overall trends.

Naturalistic observation

A research method involving the observation of subjects in their natural environment without interference.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Falsifiable (Hypothesis)

A characteristic of a hypothesis that allows it to be proven false through evidence.

Operational definition

A clear and precise definition of a variable in terms of how it will be measured or manipulated.

Replication

The process of repeating a study to verify its results and findings.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment to assess the effect of the independent variable.

Confounding variable

An extraneous variable that may affect the dependent variable and lead to erroneous conclusions.

Variables

Any factors, traits, or conditions that can exist in differing amounts or types.

Mean

The average value of a set of numbers, calculated by dividing the sum of the values by the number of values.

Median

The middle value in a data set when the numbers are arranged in order.

Mode

The value that appears most frequently in a data set.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Standard deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution of data where most values cluster around the mean.

Percentile Rank

A measure indicating the percentage of scores that fall below a particular score in a distribution.

Positive Skew

A distribution where most values are concentrated on the left, with a long tail extending to the right.

Negative Skew

A distribution where most values are concentrated on the right, with a long tail extending to the left.

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution with two different modes or peaks.

Regression toward the mean

The phenomenon where extreme values tend to be closer to the average on subsequent measurements.

Claim/Norm

A statement or assertion that can be tested or evaluated against established standards.

Participants

Individuals who take part in a research study or experiment.

Sample

A subset of a population selected for participation in a study.

Population

The entire group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the larger population.

Random sampling

A technique where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.

Convenience sampling

A non-random sampling method where participants are selected based on their availability and willingness to participate.

Sampling bias

A bias that occurs when the sample is more likely to be selected than the other’s sample

Generalizability

The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to broader populations or different contexts.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention being tested.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment and is used for comparison.

Placebo

An inactive substance or treatment that has no therapeutic effect, used as a control in experiments.

Placebo effect

The phenomenon where participants experience real changes in their condition due to their expectations of treatment, rather than the treatment itself.

Single-blind procedure

An experimental design where participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-blind procedure

An experimental design where neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is in the experimental or control group.

Experimenter bias

A type of bias that occurs when a researcher's expectations influence the outcome of a study.

Social desirability bias

The tendency of participants to respond in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others, rather than truthfully.

Structured interviews

A data collection method where the interviewer asks a set of predetermined questions in a specific order.

Likert scales

A rating scale used to measure attitudes or opinions, typically ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree."

Peer review

The process by which a research study is evaluated by experts in the field before publication.

Replication

The process of repeating a study to see if the same results can be obtained.

Inferential data

Data that allows researchers to make inferences or generalizations about a population based on a sample.

Descriptive data

Data that provides a summary or description of a dataset without making inferences.

Scatterplot

A graphical representation of the relationship between two quantitative variables.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical measure that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

Effect sizes

A quantitative measure of the magnitude of a phenomenon or the strength of a relationship in a study.

Statistical significance

A determination that results are unlikely to have occurred by chance, typically assessed using a p-value.

Third variable problem

A situation in which a third variable influences both the independent and dependent variables, potentially confounding results.

Positive Correlation

A relationship between two variables where an increase in one variable corresponds to an increase in the other variable