Untitled Flashcards Set

Audience

The listener, viewer, or reader of a text. Example: The audience of a political speech might include voters, journalists, and party members.

Pathos

Greek for 'suffering' or 'experience'; a rhetorical appeal to emotionally motivate an audience. Example: A charity advertisement showing images of suffering animals evokes pathos to encourage donations.

Rhetorical Question

A figure of speech in the form of a question posed for rhetorical effect rather than for getting an answer. Example: 'Isn’t it time we did something about this issue?'.

Aristotelian Triangle

A diagram illustrating the interrelationship among the speaker, audience, and subject determining a text. Example: In a speech about climate change, the speaker (scientist) addresses the audience (general public) about the subject (global warming).

Concession

An acknowledgment that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. Example: 'While I understand that economic growth is important, we must also consider environmental sustainability.'

Persona

Greek for 'mask'; the character or face a speaker shows to the audience. Example: A politician may adopt a friendly persona to connect with voters.

SOAPS

A mnemonic device standing for Subject, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, and Speaker. Example: In analyzing a text, one might identify the subject as climate change, the occasion as a conference, the audience as policymakers, the purpose as to inform, and the speaker as a climate scientist.

Connotation

Meanings or associations that readers have with a word beyond its dictionary definition. Example: The word 'home' connotes warmth and security, while 'house' is more neutral.

Polemic

Greek for 'hostile'; an aggressive argument that establishes the superiority of one opinion over others. Example: A polemic against animal testing may aggressively argue that it is unethical.

Context

The circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding a text. Example: Understanding the historical context of a speech can illuminate its significance and intent.

Propaganda

The spread of ideas and information to further a cause, which may involve disinformation or scare tactics. Example: Government propaganda during wartime may depict the enemy as evil to rally public support.

Subject

The topic of a text, representing what it is about. Example: The subject of a novel might be the complexities of human relationships.

Counterargument

An opposing argument to the one a writer is presenting. Example: In a debate on renewable energy, a counterargument may claim that it is not as reliable as fossil fuels.

Purpose

The goal the speaker wants to achieve in delivering a text. Example: The purpose of a speech may be to persuade the audience to vote for a specific candidate.

Text

Any cultural product that can be 'read', including written work and other forms of media. Example: Texts can include novels, films, poems, and advertisements.

Ethos

Greek for 'character'; an appeal to credibility and trustworthiness. Example: A doctor discussing health issues uses ethos to establish trust with the audience.

Refutation

A denial of the validity of an opposing argument. Example: In a debate, a refutation might point out logical fallacies in the other side’s claims.

Logos

Greek for 'embodied thought'; an appeal to reason using clear ideas, specific details, and evidence. Example: A business proposal often uses logos to present data supporting an investment.

Rhetoric

The art of finding ways to persuade an audience. Example: Politicians often utilize rhetoric to gain support for their policies.

Occasion

The time and place a speech or text is given. Example: A speech given during a national crisis serves a different occasion than one given at a graduation.

Rhetorical Appeals

Techniques used to persuade an audience, including ethos, logos, and pathos. Example: A good persuasive essay will effectively use all three rhetorical appeals.

Alliteration

Repetition of the same sound at the beginning of several words or syllables in sequence. Example: 'She sells seashells by the seashore'.

Hortative Sentence

A sentence that exhorts, urges, or calls to action. Example: 'Let us strive to make our world a better place!'

Personification

Attribution of a lifelike quality to an inanimate object or idea. Example: 'The wind whispered through the trees.'

Allusion

A brief reference to a person, event, or place, or to a work of art. Example: 'He was a real Romeo with the ladies,' refers to the character from Shakespeare.

Imperative

A sentence used to command or enjoin. Example: 'Please close the door.'

Anaphora

Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases. Example: 'I have a dream that one day... I have a dream that my four little children...'

Inversion

Inverted order of words in a sentence. Example: 'In the night sky shimmered the sea.'

Synecdoche

A figure of speech that uses a part to represent the whole. Example: 'All hands on deck,' where 'hands' refers to sailors.

Antimetabole

Repetition of words in reverse order. Example: 'Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.'

Juxtaposition

Placement of two things closely together to emphasize similarities or differences. Example: The juxtaposition of light and dark themes highlights the conflict in a story.

Zeugma

Use of two different words in a grammatically similar way that produces different meanings. Example: 'She broke his car and his heart.'

Antithesis

Opposition or contrast of ideas or words in parallel construction. Example: 'It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.'

Metaphor

A figure of speech that compares two things without using like or as. Example: 'Time is a thief.'

Archaic

Old-fashioned or outdated choice of words. Example: 'Thou dost not know what thou hast done.'

Diction

A speaker’s choice of words. Example: The formal diction in a legal document contrasts with the informal diction of a casual conversation.

Oxymoron

A paradox made up of two seemingly contradictory words. Example: 'Bittersweet' describes a feeling that is both happy and sad.

Asyndeton

Omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words. Example: 'I came, I saw, I conquered.'

Parallelism

Similarity of structure in related words, phrases, or clauses. Example: 'I like to jog, to swim, and to read.'

Cumulative Sentence

A sentence that builds and adds onto the main idea introduced at the beginning. Example: 'The woods are lovely, dark, and deep, but I have promises to keep, and miles to go before I sleep.'

Periodic Sentence

A sentence whose main clause is withheld until the end. Example: 'In spite of the cold weather and the rain, the soccer game continued.'

Ad Hominem

A fallacy that diverts the argument to the character of the other speaker. Example: 'How can you argue your point when you’ve been divorced three times?'

Ad Populum/Bandwagon

A fallacy based on evidence that relies on the idea that 'everyone’s doing it'. Example: 'Everyone is switching to this brand, so it must be the best!'

Appeal to False Authority

Citing someone as an authority without the expertise. Example: 'A celebrity endorses a dietary supplement, so it must be effective.'

Argument

A process of reasoned inquiry leading to a coherent and considered conclusion. Example: Constructing an argument requires careful consideration of evidence and counterarguments.

Assumption

A shared belief or notion that underpins the argument. Example: An assumption in a debate might be that all people value freedom.

Backing

Further assurances or data supporting the assumption in an argument. Example: Statistical data can serve as backing to enhance an argument’s credibility.

Deduction

Logical reasoning from general principles to specific cases. Example: All humans are mortal; Socrates is a human; therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Circular Reasoning

A fallacy that repeats the claim as evidence. Example: 'I’m trustworthy because I can be trusted.'

Warrant

The underlying assumption shared by the speaker and audience. Example: A warrant in an argument about education might be the belief that education leads to better job opportunities.

Claim

An assertion stating the main idea or position of the argument. Example: 'The government should increase funding for renewable energy projects.'

Claim of Fact

Asserts that something is true or not true. Example: 'Climate change is causing sea levels to rise.'

Claim of Policy

Proposes a change in policy or behavior. Example: 'The city should implement a bike-sharing program.'

Claim of Value

Argues that something is good or bad. Example: 'Social media is harmful to society.'

Classical Oration

A five-part argument structure including introduction, narration, confirmation, refutation, and conclusion. Example: An effective persuasive essay can follow this structure for clarity.

Closed Thesis

A thesis that outlines the main idea along with the major points of the argument. Example: 'The high school drop-out rate is due to poor teaching, lack of parental support, and insufficient resources.'

Rebuttal

Acknowledgment of potential objections to the argument. Example: 'Although some may argue that raising taxes is harmful, it is necessary for funding essential services.'

False Dilemma

Presenting only two extreme options as the only possibilities. Example: 'You're either with us or against us.'

Syllogism

A logical structure using a major premise and minor premise to reach a conclusion. Example: Major premise: All birds lay eggs. Minor premise: A swan is a bird. Conclusion: Therefore, a swan lays eggs.

Faulty Analogy

A fallacy that compares two things that are not comparable. Example: 'Eating fast food is just like committing a crime.'

Hasty Generalization

A conclusion reached with inadequate evidence. Example: 'My two neighbors drive SUVs; therefore, everyone in my neighborhood drives an SUV.'

Induction

Reasoning from specific cases to a general conclusion. Example: After observing that all swans you've seen are white, you conclude that all swans are white.

Logical Fallacy

Weaknesses in an argument due to faulty reasoning. Example: An argument based on emotion without supporting facts is a logical fallacy.

Open Thesis

A thesis that does not list all points to be covered. Example: 'The internet has had a profound impact on society.'

Qualifier

A word that limits the claim, making it less absolute. Example: 'Most people support the new law,' includes a qualifier.

Straw Man Fallacy

A tactic that misrepresents an argument to make it easier to refute. Example: 'You want to reduce military spending? So you want our country to be defenseless?'

Quantitative Evidence

Evidence that can be measured, cited, or counted. Example: 'Studies show that 70% of teenagers use social media daily.'