AP Psychology: 4.1-4.3 Social Psychology

Actor-Observer Effect

The tendency for individuals to attribute their own behavior to external factors while attributing others' behavior to internal factors.

External Locus of Control

The belief that one's life outcomes are controlled by external circumstances rather than one's own actions.

Attribution Theory

The idea that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition.

Culture

Enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A belief that leads to its own fulfillment, causing a prediction to become true.

Situational Attribution

Attributing behavior to external or situational factors, such as luck or social pressure.

Explanatory Style

An individual's unique way of describing and explaining events or personal history.

Dispositional Attribution

Attributing actions or outcomes to internal or psychological causes specific to a person, such as traits or decisions.

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to someone judged to be better than oneself.

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to someone judged to be worse than oneself.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences on others' behavior.

Internal Locus of Control

The perception that one has the power over outcomes through one's own actions.

Relative Deprivation

The perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to perceive oneself favorably and to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

Ethnocentrism

The practice of viewing one’s own ethnic, racial, or social group as superior to others.

Stereotype

Cognitive generalizations about the qualities and characteristics of members of a group.

Just-World Phenomenon

The belief that the world is fair and people get what they deserve.

Bystander Effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help a victim when other people are present.

Social Influence

Any change in an individual’s thoughts, feelings, or behaviors caused by others.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

The theory that we act to reduce discomfort felt when two thoughts are inconsistent.

Social Loafing

The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone.

Groupthink

A psychological phenomenon where the desire for harmony or conformity in a group results in an irrational decision-making outcome.

Social Facilitation

The tendency for people to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in groups, leading to behavior that is inconsistent with personal norms.

Conformity

The act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms or pressure.

Obedience

Compliance with commands given by an authority figure.

Normative Social Influence

Influence stemming from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid rejection from a group.

Informational Social Influence

Influence resulting from a person's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality.

Social Norms

Expectations regarding what is appropriate behavior in a given social context.

Ingroup Bias

The tendency to favor one's own group over others.

Outgroup Homogeneity Effect

The perception that members of an outgroup are more similar to one another than members of one's ingroup.

Altruism

Selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Reciprocal Altruism

The practice of acting in a way that benefits others with the expectation that they will respond in kind.

Diffusion of Responsibility

A phenomenon where a person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction when others are present.

Social Identity Theory

A theory that describes how individuals derive part of their identity from social groups.

Cognitive Dissonance

The mental discomfort experienced when holding two or more contradictory beliefs or values.

Persuasion

The process by which a person or group induces changes in attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

A theory explaining two ways in which persuasive messages lead to attitude change: central and peripheral routes.

Central Route to Persuasion

Involves persuasion through logical arguments and factual information.

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

Involves persuasion through superficial or emotional cues, such as attractiveness or celebrity endorsements.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

A persuasion strategy that involves getting a person to agree to a large request by first setting them up with a smaller one.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

A persuasion strategy where an initial large request is followed by a smaller, more reasonable request.

The Halo Effect

The cognitive bias where an individual's overall impression of a person influences their feelings and thoughts about that person's character.

Stereotype Threat

The risk of confirming negative stereotypes about an individual's racial, ethnic, gender, or cultural group.

The bystander effect

The tendency for people to be less likely to help someone in need when others are present.

Mere Exposure Effect

The phenomenon that repeated exposure to someone or something increases our liking for it.

Attraction Theory

A theory that explains the factors that lead to interpersonal attraction, including proximity, similarity, and physical attractiveness.

Interpersonal Attraction

The force that draws people together based on similarities and proximity.

Social Exchange Theory

The theory that human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective cost-benefit analysis.

Homophily

The tendency of individuals to associate and bond with similar others.

Equity Theory

The theory suggesting that relationships are maintained by the comparison of costs and benefits.

Attachment Styles

Patterns of bonding and interaction that individuals develop in relationships based on their early experiences.

Romantic Love

An emotional experience characterized by intense feelings of passion, intimacy, and commitment.

Companionate Love

A deep affection and attachment developed over time, typically characterized by intimacy and commitment without the passion of romantic love.

Collectivism

A cultural orientation that values the group over the individual and emphasizes community and cooperation.

Individualism

A cultural orientation that values individual autonomy and personal achievement.

Social Comparison Theory

The theory that individuals determine their own social and personal worth based on how they stack up against others.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to attribute others’ actions to their character while attributing our actions to situational factors.

Just World Hypothesis

The belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Attribution Theory

The theory that explains how people determine the causes of behavior.

Status

A social position that an individual holds within a group.

Role Conflict

The tension or conflict individuals experience when faced with competing demands from different roles.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

The theory stating that people are motivated to maintain consistency between their beliefs and behaviors.

Cultural Norms

Shared expectations and rules that guide behavior of people within social groups.

Social Learning Theory

A theory positing that individuals learn behaviors through observation and imitation.

Bystander Intervention

The act of helping someone in distress, particularly in emergency situations.

Group Polarization

The tendency for group discussion to amplify the attitudes of group members, leading to extreme outcomes.

Self-Perception Theory

The theory that people develop attitudes by observing their own behavior.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

The theory that frustration often leads to aggressive behavior.

Outgroup Bias

The tendency to view outgroup members as more negative than ingroup members.

Social loafing

The tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group compared to working alone.

Scapegoating

Blaming an outgroup for problems or negative outcomes.

Bystander Effect

The phenomenon wherein individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred.

Contact Hypothesis

The idea that contact between groups can reduce prejudice under certain conditions.

Social Roles

Expected behaviors associated with a particular position in a social group.

Empathy

The ability to understand and share the feelings of others.

Prejudice

A preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience.

Discrimination

The unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people.

Persuasive Communication

The interaction that aims to change a person's attitude or behavior.

Social Proof

The influence of others' behavior on an individual's own actions, particularly in uncertain situations.

Heroism

Acts of courage or self-sacrifice in the face of danger or difficulty.

Emotional Appeal

A method of persuasion that uses emotional responses to influence decision-making.