Psych Exam

Cognition

The mental process involved in knowing, learning, and understanding things

Algorithm

Step-by-step problem solving solution which guarantees solutions

Heuristics

Simple strategies/short-cuts, based on past experiences, that allow us to solve problems faster, but are error-prone

Belief perseverance

The tendency to cling to initial conceptions or beliefs despite proof to the contrary

The availability heuristic

A mental shortcut relying on psychologically salient or easily imagined examples rather than actual odds or factual information

Formal concepts

Have clearly defined characteristics and agreed upon rules governing what is included in that concept. E.g. triangle, animals

Natural concepts

Do not have clearly defined characteristics nor agreed upon rules of what is included in the concept. E.g. chair, mum

Prototype

Mental image, or best example, of a concept

Exemplar

Any example of an item within an overarching concept

Schema

A mental structure of preconceived ideas, a framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system of organizing and perceiving new information

System 1 Thinking

Thinking based on established schema, quick, prone to error, use shortcuts/heuristic, automatic

System 2 Thinking

Thinking requiring effort and concentration, uses conscious reasoning, reliable but slow

Reason for System 1 Thinking

We are cognitive misers, we experience ego depletion, our cognitive load is too high --> the law of least effort

Strengths of the Dual Processing Model

Biological evidence that different types of thinking may be processed in different parts of the brain. The Wason selection task and other tests for cognitive biases have reliable results.

Limitations of the Dual Processing Model

Definition of System 1 and System 2 are not always clear. Some argue there is not just two systems. Does not explain emotion etc.

Representative Heuristic

The assumption that an individual case is more representative than it actually is

Availability Heuristic

The easier something is to think of the more it feels true. Things that we are exposed to are more present in our mind, feel more likely to occur.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate how accurate our beliefs and judgements are. We tend to be more confident than correct

Confirmation bias

tendency to search for information that supports our pre-existing beliefs

Declarative memory

Memories of facts and events

Semantic memory

Memory of general facts

Episodic memory

Autobiographical memories

Procedural memory

Memories of how to do something, e.g. ride a bike or play piano

Working Memory Model: The Central Executive

Directs attention to tasks, allocates information based on modality

Working Memory Model: The Phonological Loop

Limited capacity, deals with auditory information and language,

Working Memory Model: The Visuospatial Sketchpad

Limited capacity, deals with visual or spatial information, the 'inner scribe' processes spatial and movement information

Working Memory Model: The Episodic Buffer

Links information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information, such as the memory of an event

Strengths of the Working Memory Model

Experimental evidence, brain scans showing different areas activated for visual vs verbal tasks, explains how we can multitask in some situations but not others

Limitations of the Working Memory Model

How various components of the model interact is not clear, does not explain the process of long-term memory, does not explain the role of emotion

Similarities between Multi-Store Model and Working Memory Model

Rehearsal is necessary to transfer information from STM to LTM, neither explains memory distortion or role of emotion, agree that STM is limited in capacity and duration

Differences between Multi-Store Model and Working Memory Model

WMM divides MSTM into multiple stores, WMM focuses solely on ,STM and argues that modalities are processed differently

Creators of Multi-Store Memory Model

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971)

Creators of Working Memory Model

Baddeley and Hitch in 1974

Three stores in the Multi-Store Model

Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term mem

Sensory memory MSTM

A temporary store holding information from the environment very briefly, only lasting a few seconds and decays rapidly

Attention (process) MSTM

How information is transferred from the sensory registers to the short-term store

Short-term memory (store) MSTM

Where we hold information we’re currently paying attention to, limited capacity and duration (15 to 30 seconds), has rehearsal buffer

Rehearsal (process) MSTM

How information is transferred from the short-term store to the long-term store

Long-term memory (store) MSTM

Where we keep our long-term, permanent memories after it has been rehearsed in the short-term store.
This has an unlimited capacity and these memories are permanent

Search and retrieval (processes) MSTM

Searching for information is a control process in the short-term and long-term stores. We can retrieve information from our long-term memory by using active search processes.

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

Depicts the decline of memory retention over time

Serial position effect

The effect an item’s position on a list has on how well it is recalled

Primacy effect

Wwhen a participant recalls information presented earlier in a list better than information presented later on

Recency effect

When a participant recalls information presented at the end of a list better than information presented in the middle of a list

Strengths of the Multi-Store Memory Model

Has experimental evidence, relevant applications

Limitations of the Multi-Store Memory Model

Over-simplifies memory, does not explain why you can rehearse information and it is not transferred to Long-Term Memory

Bartlett Study (1932)

Showed how schema play a role in encoding information. Telephone game with story of Native American culture, participants distorted the story to make it more consistent with their culture

Schema Accommodation

When an existing schema is replaced

Schema Assimilation

When you add information to your schema.

Scripts

Schema about events in time (e.g. what happens on Christmas)

Flashbulb memory

A highly detailed, exceptionally vivid "snapshot" of the moment when a surprising and emotionally arousing event happened

Importance-Driven Model of Flashbulb Memory

Prior knowledge (schema) helps us decide whether something is important or not. Emotion (specifically, surprise) plays a key role in the encoding of the memory.

Emotion

A complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral, and physiological elements

Three Components of Emotional Experience

A subjective experience, a physiological response, a behavioural response

Feeling

The subjective experience associated with an emotion

Mood

An emotional state that is general and extended in time

Affect

Encompasses feelings, mood, and categories of emotion (e.g. positive and negative affect)

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

Physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time

James-Lange theory of emotion

Emotions arise from physiological arousal

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Facial expressions are capable of influencing our emo

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion

Emotions consist of two factors: physiological and cognitive. First, environmental stimuli elicits a physiological response. Second, we cognitively appraise this physiological activity, and try to give it the correct label.

Example of James-Lange Theory of Emotion

We observe our heart racing after a threat and then feel afraid

Example of Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Our heart races as we experience fear

Example of Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion

Arousal could be labelled as fear or excitement depending on the context

Zajonc-LeDoux theory of emotion

Emotional reactions exist separately from cognitive labels on emotional situations: instant reaction, then apprasial

Example of Zajonc-LeDoux theory of emotion

We automatically react to a sound in the forest before appraising it

Lazarus theory of emotion

A thought must come before any emotion or physiological arousal.

Dimensional theory of emotion

Emotional feelings occur along two or more continuous dimensions, such as pleasure vs. displeasure and activation vs. deactivation. E

Ekman's universal emotions

Anger, contempt, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise (7)

Caroll Izard’s basic emotions

Anger, contempt, disgust, fear, guilt, interest, joy, sadness, shame, surprise (10)

Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions

Anger, anticipation, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surprise, trust (8) - each experienced with different levels of intensity

Self-conscious emotions

Those affected by how we see ourselves and how we think others perceive us

Social emotions

Based on a person’s appraisal or consideration of another person’s thoughts, feelings, or actions

Basic emotions

Based on one’s own physical state.

Positive Affect

The degree to which a person feels enthusiastic, active, and alert

High Positive Affect

A state of high energy, full concentration, and pleasurable engagement

Low Positive Affect

Sadness, lethargy, distress, and un-pleasurable engagement

Negative Affect

A general dimension of subjective distress

High Negative Affect

A variety of aversive states, including anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness

Low Negative Affect

A state of calmness and serenity

Two theories of emotion neuroscience

Behaviour is localised and the equipotential theory

Theory that behaviour is localised

Different parts of the brain have different functions which play a role in human behaviour

The equipotential theory

All areas of the brain are equally active in overall mental functioning.

Lateralization

The idea that some functions are specialised to one side (hemisphere) of the brain

The two hemispheres of the brain communicate through the

Corpus callosum

Two subdivisions of the Nervous System

Peripheral and Central (includes brain and spinal cord)

Two subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system motor neurons

Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary responses to cognitive and environmental stimuli that give rise to emotional responses

Two subdivisions of the Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic Division and Parasympathetic Division

Sympathetic Division ANS

"Fight or Flight", mobilises resources for emergency responses such as self-defense, and its effects include increases in heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, among others

Parasympathetic Division ANS

"Rest and Digest", works to preserve bodily resources by slowing down respiration and heart rate and reducing blood pressure

Paul MacLean’s triune brain
theory

An evolutionary theory of brain development that emphasizes three key brain regions consisting of the brainstem, the limbic system, and the cortex that function relatively independently. Is inaccurate: structures have not been added on over time, but instead modified

Right-hemisphere theory

Right hemisphere of brain dominant in all emotional processing.

Valence theory

Right hemisphere of brain dominant for negative emotions; left dominant for positive emotions

Right hemisphere of brain role in emotion

More active than left hemisphere during displays of many emotions. High activity is associated with depression and flexion (avoidant) emotions

Left hemisphere of brain role in emotion

More active than right during smiling, positive emotions, and extension (approach) motions. Relatively low activity in the left frontal lobe is associated with depression

Limbic system

A system of functionally related neural structures in the brain that are involved in emotional behavior. Includes the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the hypothalamus.

Role of Amygdala in emotion

Processing fearful and threatening stimuli, flight or fight response

Role of Basal Ganglia in emotion

Involved in expression and perception of emotions

Role of Hippocampus in emotion

Controls emotional memory recalling and regulation, as well as fear response