The mental process involved in knowing, learning, and understanding things
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Algorithm
Step-by-step problem solving solution which guarantees solutions
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Heuristics
Simple strategies/short-cuts, based on past experiences, that allow us to solve problems faster, but are error-prone
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Belief perseverance
The tendency to cling to initial conceptions or beliefs despite proof to the contrary
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The availability heuristic
A mental shortcut relying on psychologically salient or easily imagined examples rather than actual odds or factual information
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Formal concepts
Have clearly defined characteristics and agreed upon rules governing what is included in that concept. E.g. triangle, animals
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Natural concepts
Do not have clearly defined characteristics nor agreed upon rules of what is included in the concept. E.g. chair, mum
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Prototype
Mental image, or best example, of a concept
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Exemplar
Any example of an item within an overarching concept
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Schema
A mental structure of preconceived ideas, a framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system of organizing and perceiving new information
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System 1 Thinking
Thinking based on established schema, quick, prone to error, use shortcuts/heuristic, automatic
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System 2 Thinking
Thinking requiring effort and concentration, uses conscious reasoning, reliable but slow
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Reason for System 1 Thinking
We are cognitive misers, we experience ego depletion, our cognitive load is too high --> the law of least effort
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Strengths of the Dual Processing Model
Biological evidence that different types of thinking may be processed in different parts of the brain. The Wason selection task and other tests for cognitive biases have reliable results.
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Limitations of the Dual Processing Model
Definition of System 1 and System 2 are not always clear. Some argue there is not just two systems. Does not explain emotion etc.
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Representative Heuristic
The assumption that an individual case is more representative than it actually is
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Availability Heuristic
The easier something is to think of the more it feels true. Things that we are exposed to are more present in our mind, feel more likely to occur.
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Overconfidence
The tendency to overestimate how accurate our beliefs and judgements are. We tend to be more confident than correct
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Confirmation bias
tendency to search for information that supports our pre-existing beliefs
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Declarative memory
Memories of facts and events
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Semantic memory
Memory of general facts
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Episodic memory
Autobiographical memories
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Procedural memory
Memories of how to do something, e.g. ride a bike or play piano
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Working Memory Model: The Central Executive
Directs attention to tasks, allocates information based on modality
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Working Memory Model: The Phonological Loop
Limited capacity, deals with auditory information and language,
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Working Memory Model: The Visuospatial Sketchpad
Limited capacity, deals with visual or spatial information, the 'inner scribe' processes spatial and movement information
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Working Memory Model: The Episodic Buffer
Links information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information, such as the memory of an event
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Strengths of the Working Memory Model
Experimental evidence, brain scans showing different areas activated for visual vs verbal tasks, explains how we can multitask in some situations but not others
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Limitations of the Working Memory Model
How various components of the model interact is not clear, does not explain the process of long-term memory, does not explain the role of emotion
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Similarities between Multi-Store Model and Working Memory Model
Rehearsal is necessary to transfer information from STM to LTM, neither explains memory distortion or role of emotion, agree that STM is limited in capacity and duration
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Differences between Multi-Store Model and Working Memory Model
WMM divides MSTM into multiple stores, WMM focuses solely on ,STM and argues that modalities are processed differently
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Creators of Multi-Store Memory Model
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971)
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Creators of Working Memory Model
Baddeley and Hitch in 1974
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Three stores in the Multi-Store Model
Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term mem
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Sensory memory MSTM
A temporary store holding information from the environment very briefly, only lasting a few seconds and decays rapidly
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Attention (process) MSTM
How information is transferred from the sensory registers to the short-term store
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Short-term memory (store) MSTM
Where we hold information we’re currently paying attention to, limited capacity and duration (15 to 30 seconds), has rehearsal buffer
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Rehearsal (process) MSTM
How information is transferred from the short-term store to the long-term store
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Long-term memory (store) MSTM
Where we keep our long-term, permanent memories after it has been rehearsed in the short-term store. This has an unlimited capacity and these memories are permanent
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Search and retrieval (processes) MSTM
Searching for information is a control process in the short-term and long-term stores. We can retrieve information from our long-term memory by using active search processes.
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Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
Depicts the decline of memory retention over time
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Serial position effect
The effect an item’s position on a list has on how well it is recalled
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Primacy effect
Wwhen a participant recalls information presented earlier in a list better than information presented later on
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Recency effect
When a participant recalls information presented at the end of a list better than information presented in the middle of a list
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Strengths of the Multi-Store Memory Model
Has experimental evidence, relevant applications
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Limitations of the Multi-Store Memory Model
Over-simplifies memory, does not explain why you can rehearse information and it is not transferred to Long-Term Memory
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Bartlett Study (1932)
Showed how schema play a role in encoding information. Telephone game with story of Native American culture, participants distorted the story to make it more consistent with their culture
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Schema Accommodation
When an existing schema is replaced
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Schema Assimilation
When you add information to your schema.
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Scripts
Schema about events in time (e.g. what happens on Christmas)
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Flashbulb memory
A highly detailed, exceptionally vivid "snapshot" of the moment when a surprising and emotionally arousing event happened
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Importance-Driven Model of Flashbulb Memory
Prior knowledge (schema) helps us decide whether something is important or not. Emotion (specifically, surprise) plays a key role in the encoding of the memory.
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Emotion
A complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral, and physiological elements
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Three Components of Emotional Experience
A subjective experience, a physiological response, a behavioural response
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Feeling
The subjective experience associated with an emotion
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Mood
An emotional state that is general and extended in time
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Affect
Encompasses feelings, mood, and categories of emotion (e.g. positive and negative affect)
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Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
Physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time
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James-Lange theory of emotion
Emotions arise from physiological arousal
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Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Facial expressions are capable of influencing our emo
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Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion
Emotions consist of two factors: physiological and cognitive. First, environmental stimuli elicits a physiological response. Second, we cognitively appraise this physiological activity, and try to give it the correct label.
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Example of James-Lange Theory of Emotion
We observe our heart racing after a threat and then feel afraid
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Example of Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Our heart races as we experience fear
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Example of Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion
Arousal could be labelled as fear or excitement depending on the context
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Zajonc-LeDoux theory of emotion
Emotional reactions exist separately from cognitive labels on emotional situations: instant reaction, then apprasial
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Example of Zajonc-LeDoux theory of emotion
We automatically react to a sound in the forest before appraising it
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Lazarus theory of emotion
A thought must come before any emotion or physiological arousal.
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Dimensional theory of emotion
Emotional feelings occur along two or more continuous dimensions, such as pleasure vs. displeasure and activation vs. deactivation. E
Anger, anticipation, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surprise, trust (8) - each experienced with different levels of intensity
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Self-conscious emotions
Those affected by how we see ourselves and how we think others perceive us
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Social emotions
Based on a person’s appraisal or consideration of another person’s thoughts, feelings, or actions
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Basic emotions
Based on one’s own physical state.
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Positive Affect
The degree to which a person feels enthusiastic, active, and alert
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High Positive Affect
A state of high energy, full concentration, and pleasurable engagement
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Low Positive Affect
Sadness, lethargy, distress, and un-pleasurable engagement
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Negative Affect
A general dimension of subjective distress
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High Negative Affect
A variety of aversive states, including anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness
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Low Negative Affect
A state of calmness and serenity
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Two theories of emotion neuroscience
Behaviour is localised and the equipotential theory
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Theory that behaviour is localised
Different parts of the brain have different functions which play a role in human behaviour
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The equipotential theory
All areas of the brain are equally active in overall mental functioning.
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Lateralization
The idea that some functions are specialised to one side (hemisphere) of the brain
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The two hemispheres of the brain communicate through the
Corpus callosum
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Two subdivisions of the Nervous System
Peripheral and Central (includes brain and spinal cord)
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Two subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system motor neurons
Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System
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Autonomic Nervous System
Controls involuntary responses to cognitive and environmental stimuli that give rise to emotional responses
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Two subdivisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Division and Parasympathetic Division
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Sympathetic Division ANS
"Fight or Flight", mobilises resources for emergency responses such as self-defense, and its effects include increases in heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, among others
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Parasympathetic Division ANS
"Rest and Digest", works to preserve bodily resources by slowing down respiration and heart rate and reducing blood pressure
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Paul MacLean’s triune brain theory
An evolutionary theory of brain development that emphasizes three key brain regions consisting of the brainstem, the limbic system, and the cortex that function relatively independently. Is inaccurate: structures have not been added on over time, but instead modified
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Right-hemisphere theory
Right hemisphere of brain dominant in all emotional processing.
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Valence theory
Right hemisphere of brain dominant for negative emotions; left dominant for positive emotions
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Right hemisphere of brain role in emotion
More active than left hemisphere during displays of many emotions. High activity is associated with depression and flexion (avoidant) emotions
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Left hemisphere of brain role in emotion
More active than right during smiling, positive emotions, and extension (approach) motions. Relatively low activity in the left frontal lobe is associated with depression
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Limbic system
A system of functionally related neural structures in the brain that are involved in emotional behavior. Includes the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the hypothalamus.
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Role of Amygdala in emotion
Processing fearful and threatening stimuli, flight or fight response
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Role of Basal Ganglia in emotion
Involved in expression and perception of emotions
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Role of Hippocampus in emotion
Controls emotional memory recalling and regulation, as well as fear response
Studied by 16 people
