Memory

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, & retrieval of information

Recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier

Recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned

Relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

Encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system

Storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, before the information is stored or forgotten

Long-term memory

-the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

-includes knowledge, skills, & experiences

Working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious processing of incoming auditory and visual information & of information retrieved from long-term memory

Explicit memory

the retention of facts & experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”

Effortful processing

• encoding that requires attention & conscious effort

• occurs in the frontal lobes and hippocampus

Automatic processing

-unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information

-occurs in the basal ganglia and cerebellum

Implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

Iconic memory

-a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

-a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Echoic memory

-a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

-the sound can be recalled within 3 to 4 seconds

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Shallow processing

encoding based on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

Deep processing

-encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words

-tends to yield the best retention

Semantic memory

-explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

-one of our conscious memory systems

Episodic memory

-explicit memory of personally experienced events

-one of our two conscious memory systems

Memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

Flashbulb memory

a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

Mood-congruent principle

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

Anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

Retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

Proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learner on the recall of new information meaning the old stuff makes it harder to remember the new stuff

Retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information meaning the new stuff makes it hard to remember the old stuff

Reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Misinformation effect

occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event

Hermann Ebbinghaus

-pioneering memory researcher

-found that the more frequently he practiced and the more time he spent practicing on day 1, the less time he required to relearn on day 2

-created a retention curve

-created a forgetting curve that declines rapidly initially and then levels out

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

proposed a 3 stage model:

1. we first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory

2. From there, we process information into short-term memory, where we encode it though rehearsal

3. Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval

George A. Miller

proposed that we can store about seven pieces of information in our short-term memory

Eric Kandel

observed synaptic changes during learning in the neurons of the California sea slug, Alphysia

Elizabeth Loftus

showed how people experience memory reconsolidation and create false memories using lineups