Social Structures, Social Processes, and Social Issues

Social Structures

The organized pattern of social relationships and social institutions that together compose society.

Social Stratification

A system by which society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy.

Class Stratification

Based on economic position in society.

Caste System

Hereditary systems of rank, usually religiously dictated, are common in India but also found in other societies in different forms.

Gender Stratification

Differences in power, status, and access to resources based on gender.

Ethnic and Racial Stratification

Hierarchies based on ethnic and racial identities.

Age Stratification

Ranking based on age.

Functionalist Perspective

Social stratification is necessary to fill all societal positions (Davis and Moore).

Conflict Perspective

Stratification results from the struggle for scarce resources (Marx, with contributions from Pierre Bourdieu on cultural capital).

Weberian Perspective

Stratification is multidimensional and includes class, status, and power.

The Three Dimensions of the Weberian Perspective are…

Class (economic position), Status (social honor or prestige), and Power (ability to influence others).

Social Processes

The patterns of growth and change in society over the years.

Socialization

The process by which individuals learn and adopt the norms, values, and behaviors appropriate for their society.

Primary Socialization

Occurs within the family, where basic norms and values are learned.

Secondary Socialization

Occurs in schools, peer groups, and media, where individuals learn the behaviors and norms appropriate to their society.

Agents of Socialization

Family

Role Allocation

The process of assigning individuals to different roles based on abilities and training.

Role Conflict

When an individual faces competing demands from different roles they occupy.

Norms

Rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members.

Values

Beliefs about what is important, desirable, and worthwhile.

Culture

The shared beliefs, behaviors, and material objects that constitute a people’s way of life.

Components

Symbols, language, values, norms, and material culture.

Subculture

A cultural group within a larger culture, often having beliefs or interests at variance with those of the larger culture.

Counterculture

A culture with values and norms that run counter to those of the social mainstream.

Identity

How individuals see themselves and how others perceive them.

Types of Identity

Personal identity (self-concept), Social identity (group membership).

Ascribed Status

Social position a person is born into (e.g., race, gender).

Achieved Status

Social position a person attains through their actions (e.g., career, education).

Social Issues

Problems that affect many people within a society.

Inequality

Disparities in wealth, income, and status.

Class Inequality

Economic disparities between different classes.

Gender Inequality

Differences in status, power, and opportunities between men and women.

Racial and Ethnic Inequality

Discrimination and disparities based on race and ethnicity.

Age Inequality

Differences in treatment and opportunities based on age.

Poverty

Lack of basic resources to maintain a standard of living.

Absolute Poverty

Inability to meet basic needs for food, clothing, and shelter.

Relative Poverty

Being poor relative to the wealth and income of others in society.

Poverty Line

The minimum level of income deemed adequate in a particular country.

Causes

Unemployment, lack of education, systemic inequalities.

Consequences

Poor health, lack of access to education, social exclusion.

Crime and Deviance

Behavior that violates norms or laws.

White-collar

Financial crimes committed by high-status individuals (e.g., embezzlement).

Blue-collar

Physical crimes, typically by lower-status individuals (e.g., burglary).

Corporate

Crimes committed by companies or their representatives (e.g., fraud).

Cybercrime

Crimes conducted via the internet (e.g., hacking).

Functionalist Perspective (Durkheim)

Crime is a normal part of society and can reinforce social norms.

Strain Theory (Merton)

Crime occurs when there is a discrepancy between societal goals and the means available to achieve them.

Interactionist Perspective

Crime is learned through interactions with others.

Labeling Theory

Individuals become deviant when a deviant label is applied to them.

Conflict Theory

Crime results from social inequality and power differentials.

Education

Access to quality education, impacts on life chances.

Health

Access to healthcare, health disparities based on social factors.

Traditional Power

Based on customs and traditions.

Charismatic Power

Based on the personal qualities of a leader.

Legal-Rational Power

Based on established laws and procedures.