Cognitive Psychology

Memory

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-blank test

Recognition

A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

Relearning

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning.

Storage

The process of retaining encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Parallel Processing

Processing many aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously.

Sensory Memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Short-term Memory

Briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten.

Long-term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Working Memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both incoming sensory information, and information retrieved from long-term memory.

Explicit Memory

Retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and "declare." (also called declarative memory.)

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and a familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings.

Implicit Memory

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

Iconic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

Echoic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli: if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Mnemonics

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Spacing Effect

The tendency for distributed study or practive to uield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

Shallow Processing

Encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

Deep Processing

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

Semantic Memory

Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory).

Episodic Memory

Explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory).

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories- of facts and events -for storage.

Memory Consolidation

The neural storage of a long-term memory.

Flashbulb Memory

A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

An increase in a nerve cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

Encoding Specificity Principle

The idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.

Mood-Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

Serial Position Effect

Our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list.

Anterograde Amnesia

An inability to form new memories.

Retrograde Amnesia

An inability to remember information from one's past.

Proactive Interference

The forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.

Retroactive Interference

The backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.

Repression

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Reconsolidation

A process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.

Misinformation Effect

Occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.

Source Amnesia

Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

David Wechsler

Developed The Wechsler Memory Scale in 1945.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Pioneer memory researcher that showed relearning.

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

Proposed a three-stage iinformation-processing model.

Alany Baddeley

Extended the understanding of short-term memory called it "working memory" stage. Also creator of Baddeley Model.

George Sperling

Researcher, helped demonstrate sensory memory.

Elizabeth Loftus

An export on memory and false Memory

George Miller

Proposed that we can store about seven pieces of info in short term memory.

Lloyd and Magaret Peterson

Demonstrated short term memory and that it doesn't last that long.

Gordon Bower

Demonstrated organizational knowledge in hierarchies that help us retrieve info effciently.

Henry Roediger

Memory researcher. worked with Karpicke.

Jeffrey Karpicke

Memory researcher. worked with Roediger.

Fergus Criak and Endel Tulying

Tested and experimented about the levels of processing.

Helga and Tony Noice

Ran an experiment that helped demonstrate making material meaningful.

Karl Lashley

A psychologist that had demonstrated Memory Storage with rats.