psych final

Gestalt Principles

Ways the brain organizes sensory information into meaningful wholes.

Proximity

Group close items together.

Similarity

Group similar items.

Closure

Fill in missing parts.

Continuity

Follow smooth patterns.

Flynn Effect

Average IQ scores have increased over decades, suggesting environmental influence on intelligence (e.g., better education/nutrition).

Perceptual Set

Mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. Influenced by expectations, context, culture.

Monochromatism

Color blindness where the individual sees in shades of gray. Caused by absence of cones.

Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference - JND)

Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli. Based on Weber’s Law.

Weber’s Law

The greater the stimulus, the greater the change must be to notice a difference. Example: noticing weight added to a full backpack vs. an empty one.

Kinesthetic Sense

Senses body’s position and movement. Receptors in muscles and joints. Example: touching nose with eyes closed.

Synesthesia

A condition where stimulation of one sense leads to involuntary experiences in another. Example: seeing colors when hearing music.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Tendency to continue investing in something due to already invested resources. Example: finishing a bad movie because you paid for the ticket.

Hindsight Bias

Tendency to believe, after the outcome is known, that you predicted it. 'I knew it all along.'

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts used for quick decision-making.

Availability Heuristic

Judge likelihood by how easily examples come to mind. Example: thinking plane crashes are common after seeing news coverage.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judge likelihood based on how well something matches prototype. Can ignore base rates.

Overconfidence Bias

Overestimating the accuracy of one's knowledge or judgments.

Self-Serving Bias

Attribute successes to oneself, failures to external factors.

Cocktail Party Effect

Ability to focus on one voice among many while still noticing personally relevant info (like your name).

Amnesia - Retrograde

Loss of old memories.

Amnesia - Anterograde

Inability to form new memories (e.g., HM case study).

Depth Cues - Binocular

Require both eyes (retinal disparity, convergence).

Depth Cues - Monocular

One eye (linear perspective, interposition, texture gradient).

Retina

Light-sensitive back of the eye; contains rods and cones.

Method of Loci

Memory strategy involving placing items in imagined locations for recall. Effective for sequencing.

Memory Types - Implicit

Unconscious skills (e.g., riding a bike).

Memory Types - Explicit

Conscious recall (facts/events).

Memory Types - Declarative

Includes semantic (facts) and episodic (events).

Memory Types - Procedural

How-to skills.

Serial Position Effect

Recall first (primacy) and last (recency) items best.

IQ (Intelligence Quotient)

Mental age ÷ chronological age × 100. Measures cognitive abilities, not fixed potential.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where both variables increase or decrease together. For example, as height increases, shoe size tends to increase.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where one variable increases while the other decreases.

Causation (Cause and Effect)

When one variable directly produces a change in another variable.

Generalizability

The extent to which the results of a study apply to the broader population.

Random Assignment

Participants are randomly placed into different groups to eliminate bias.

Random Selection

Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Validity

The degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

Reliability

The consistency of a measurement tool.

Standardization

Ensuring all participants have the same testing environment.

Informed Consent

Participants must be fully informed and agree to participate.

Debriefing

Participants are informed about the purpose and any deception used.

Sample

A subgroup of the population that participates in the study.

Random Sample

Each member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen.

Sampling Bias

Occurs when certain groups are over- or under-represented.

Sampling Error

The difference between the sample results and the actual population.

Cross-Sectional Study

Compares different groups at one time.

Longitudinal Study

Follows the same group of individuals over an extended period.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing subjects in their natural environment without manipulation.

Experiment

A research method involving the manipulation of one variable to observe its effect.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of an individual or small group.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome or variable that is measured.

Confounding Variable

An extraneous variable that affects both the IV and DV.

Operational Definition

Clearly defining a variable in measurable terms.

Nonmaleficence

Ethical principle of avoiding harm to participants.

Convenience Sampling

Using participants who are readily available.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical method of combining data from many studies.

Positive Skew

Distribution where most scores are low, but a few high outliers pull the mean right.

Negative Skew

Distribution where most scores are high, but a few low outliers pull the mean left.

Assent

A minor’s verbal or written agreement to participate in research.

Brain Plasticity (Neuroplasticity)

The brain’s ability to reorganize and form new connections.

Split Brain

A condition in which the corpus callosum is severed to treat epilepsy.

Neural Firing Phases - Resting Potential

Neuron is inactive.

Neural Firing Phases - Action Potential

Electrical signal travels down the axon.

Neural Firing Phases - Refractory Period

Neuron resets and cannot fire.

Types of Neurons - Sensory Neurons

Carry information from the senses to the brain.

Types of Neurons - Motor Neurons

Carry commands from the brain to muscles.

Types of Neurons - Interneurons

Connect neurons within the brain and spinal cord.

Glial Cells

Support cells for neurons.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Prepares the body for emergency action (fight or flight).

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Returns the body to rest (rest and digest).

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary actions.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Composed of the brain and spinal cord.

Multiple Sclerosis

A disease in which the immune system attacks the myelin sheath.

Neurotransmitters - GABA

Main inhibitory NT. Low levels = anxiety/seizures.

Neurotransmitters - Dopamine

Controls movement and reward.

Neurotransmitters - Acetylcholine (ACh)

Involved in muscle contraction and memory.

Neurotransmitters - Norepinephrine

Arousal and alertness.

Neurotransmitters - Serotonin

Mood, sleep, appetite. Low = depression.

Neurotransmitters - Substance P

Transmits pain messages.

Neurotransmitters - Endorphins

Inhibit pain.

Agonist

A chemical that mimics a neurotransmitter and activates the receptor.

Antagonist

Blocks a neurotransmitter’s receptor.

Vestibular Sense

Senses balance and head movement.

Kinesthetic Sense

Senses body position and movement.

Olfactory Sense

Sense of smell.

Auditory Sense

Sense of hearing.

Lobes of the Brain - Frontal Lobe

Planning, decision making, voluntary movement.

Lobes of the Brain - Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory input like touch and spatial orientation.

Lobes of the Brain - Occipital Lobe

Processes visual information.

Lobes of the Brain - Temporal Lobe

Processes auditory information.

Key Brain Structures - Hippocampus

Formation of new memories.

Key Brain Structures - Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature.

Key Brain Structures - Wernicke’s Area

Language comprehension.

Key Brain Structures - Broca’s Area

Speech production.

Key Brain Structures - Thalamus

Sensory relay station.

Key Brain Structures - Pons

Coordinates movement and facial expressions during sleep.

Key Brain Structures - Medulla

Regulates vital functions.