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psych final

Top-Down Processing: Interpretation influenced by existing knowledge, expectations, or experiences. Example: reading messy handwriting when you already know the sentence.

Gestalt Principles: Ways the brain organizes sensory information into meaningful wholes:

  • Proximity: Group close items together

  • Similarity: Group similar items

  • Closure: Fill in missing parts

  • Continuity: Follow smooth patterns

Flynn Effect: Average IQ scores have increased over decades, suggesting environmental influence on intelligence (e.g., better education/nutrition).

Perceptual Set: Mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. Influenced by expectations, context, culture.

Monochromatism: Color blindness where the individual sees in shades of gray. Caused by absence of cones.

Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference - JND): Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli. Based on Weber’s Law.

Weber’s Law: The greater the stimulus, the greater the change must be to notice a difference. Example: noticing weight added to a full backpack vs. an empty one.

Kinesthetic Sense: Senses body’s position and movement. Receptors in muscles and joints. Example: touching nose with eyes closed.

Synesthesia: A condition where stimulation of one sense leads to involuntary experiences in another. Example: seeing colors when hearing music.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Tendency to continue investing in something due to already invested resources. Example: finishing a bad movie because you paid for the ticket.

Hindsight Bias: Tendency to believe, after the outcome is known, that you predicted it. “I knew it all along.”

Heuristics: Mental shortcuts used for quick decision-making.

  • Availability Heuristic: Judge likelihood by how easily examples come to mind. Example: thinking plane crashes are common after seeing news coverage.

  • Representativeness Heuristic: Judge likelihood based on how well something matches prototype. Can ignore base rates.

Overconfidence Bias: Overestimating the accuracy of one's knowledge or judgments.

Self-Serving Bias: Attribute successes to oneself, failures to external factors.

Cocktail Party Effect: Ability to focus on one voice among many while still noticing personally relevant info (like your name).

Amnesia:

  • Retrograde: Loss of old memories.

  • Anterograde: Inability to form new memories (e.g., HM case study).

Depth Cues:

  • Binocular: Require both eyes (retinal disparity, convergence)

  • Monocular: One eye (linear perspective, interposition, texture gradient)

Retina: Light-sensitive back of the eye; contains rods and cones.

Method of Loci: Memory strategy involving placing items in imagined locations for recall. Effective for sequencing.

Memory Types:

  • Implicit: Unconscious skills (e.g., riding a bike)

  • Explicit: Conscious recall (facts/events)

    • Declarative: Includes semantic (facts) and episodic (events)

    • Procedural: How-to skills

Serial Position Effect: Recall first (primacy) and last (recency) items best.

IQ (Intelligence Quotient): Mental age ÷ chronological age × 100. Measures cognitive abilities, not fixed potential.

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Positive Correlation: A relationship where both variables increase or decrease together. For example, as height increases, shoe size tends to increase. Important for identifying trends, but correlation does not imply causation.

Negative Correlation: A relationship where one variable increases while the other decreases. For example, as hours of sleep decrease, errors on tests may increase. Again, this is not causation.

Causation (Cause and Effect): When one variable directly produces a change in another variable. Only demonstrated through experiments with manipulation of variables and control of confounding factors.

Generalizability: The extent to which the results of a study apply to the broader population. This is improved by using random selection and a representative sample.

Random Assignment: Participants are randomly placed into different groups (e.g., control vs. experimental) to eliminate bias and control confounding variables. Ensures internal validity.

Random Selection: Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate. Increases the study’s external validity (generalizability).

Validity: The degree to which a test or procedure measures what it claims to measure. Example: A math test has high validity if it actually assesses math skills.

Reliability: The consistency of a measurement tool. A test is reliable if it gives the same results under consistent conditions.

Standardization: Ensuring all participants have the same testing environment and procedures. This is necessary for making accurate comparisons between groups.

Informed Consent: Participants must be fully informed of all aspects of a study and voluntarily agree to participate. This is a key ethical requirement.

Debriefing: After the study, participants are informed about the purpose, methods, and any deception used. Required especially when deception is involved.

Sample: A subgroup of the population that participates in the study. Should be representative to ensure results are generalizable.

  • Random Sample: Each member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen.

  • Sampling Bias: Occurs when certain groups are over- or under-represented.

  • Sampling Error: The difference between the sample results and the actual population.

Cross-Sectional Study: Compares different groups at one time. Example: comparing memory in 20-year-olds, 40-year-olds, and 60-year-olds.

Longitudinal Study: Follows the same group of individuals over an extended period. Ideal for studying development but time-consuming and expensive.

Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment without manipulation. Provides genuine behavior but no control or causality.

Experiment: A research method involving the manipulation of one variable (IV) to observe its effect on another (DV). Only method to determine causation.

Case Study: An in-depth analysis of an individual or small group. Good for rare phenomena, but results are not generalizable.

Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome or variable that is measured.

Confounding Variable: An extraneous variable that affects both the IV and DV, potentially invalidating the results.

Operational Definition: Clearly defining a variable in measurable terms. Example: defining "stress" as a score on a stress scale.

Nonmaleficence: Ethical principle of avoiding harm to participants. All procedures must be reviewed to prevent physical or psychological damage.

Convenience Sampling: Using participants who are readily available. Easier but less representative, so less generalizable.

Meta-Analysis: A statistical method of combining data from many studies to derive overall conclusions.

Positive Skew: Distribution where most scores are low, but a few high outliers pull the mean right. Example: income distribution.

Negative Skew: Distribution where most scores are high, but a few low outliers pull the mean left. Example: age of death in wealthy populations.

Assent: A minor’s verbal or written agreement to participate in research, required in addition to parental/legal guardian consent.

Brain Plasticity (Neuroplasticity): The brain’s ability to reorganize and form new connections, especially after injury or through learning. Most active during early childhood but still possible in adults.

Split Brain: A condition in which the corpus callosum is severed to treat epilepsy. Demonstrates hemispheric specialization: left = language, right = visual-spatial tasks.

Neural Firing Phases:

  • Resting Potential: Neuron is inactive.

  • Action Potential: Electrical signal travels down the axon.

  • Refractory Period: Neuron resets and cannot fire.

Types of Neurons:

  • Sensory Neurons: Carry information from the senses to the brain.

  • Motor Neurons: Carry commands from the brain to muscles.

  • Interneurons: Connect neurons within the brain and spinal cord.

Glial Cells: Support cells for neurons. Provide nutrients, clean up waste, and form the myelin sheath.

Sympathetic Nervous System: Part of the autonomic system. Prepares the body for emergency action (fight or flight): increases heart rate, dilates pupils.

Parasympathetic Nervous System: Returns the body to rest (rest and digest): slows heart rate, enhances digestion.

Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary actions (heart rate, digestion). Includes sympathetic and parasympathetic branches.

Central Nervous System (CNS): Composed of the brain and spinal cord. Coordinates all voluntary and most involuntary activities.

Multiple Sclerosis: A disease in which the immune system attacks the myelin sheath, leading to communication breakdown between brain and body.

Neurotransmitters:

  • GABA: Main inhibitory NT. Reduces neuronal excitability. Low levels = anxiety/seizures.

  • Dopamine: Controls movement and reward. High = schizophrenia; Low = Parkinson’s.

  • Acetylcholine (ACh): Involved in muscle contraction and memory. Deficiency = Alzheimer’s.

  • Norepinephrine: Arousal and alertness.

  • Serotonin: Mood, sleep, appetite. Low = depression.

  • Substance P: Transmits pain messages.

  • Endorphins: Inhibit pain. Released during exercise.

Agonist: A chemical that mimics a neurotransmitter and activates the receptor. Example: morphine = endorphin agonist.

Antagonist: Blocks a neurotransmitter’s receptor. Example: naloxone blocks opioid receptors.

Vestibular Sense: Senses balance and head movement. Located in semicircular canals of inner ear.

Kinesthetic Sense: Senses body position and movement through receptors in muscles and joints.

Olfactory Sense: Sense of smell. Only sense that bypasses the thalamus and goes directly to the limbic system.

Auditory Sense: Sense of hearing. Sound waves → eardrum → cochlea → auditory nerve.

Lobes of the Brain:

  • Frontal Lobe: Planning, decision making, voluntary movement (motor cortex).

  • Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory input like touch and spatial orientation (somatosensory cortex).

  • Occipital Lobe: Processes visual information.

  • Temporal Lobe: Processes auditory information; includes language areas.

Key Brain Structures:

  • Hippocampus: Formation of new memories.

  • Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature; links nervous and endocrine systems.

  • Wernicke’s Area: Language comprehension (usually left temporal lobe).

  • Broca’s Area: Speech production (usually left frontal lobe).

  • Thalamus: Sensory relay station (except smell).

  • Pons: Coordinates movement and facial expressions; involved in sleep.

  • Medulla: Regulates vital functions (heart rate, breathing).

  • Corpus Callosum: Bundle of fibers connecting the two hemispheres.

  • Reticular Formation: Controls arousal and attention.

Eye Structures:

  • Rods: Detect black, white, and gray; active in low light.

  • Cones: Detect color and detail; require bright light.

  • Fovea: Center of retina with most cones; sharpest vision.

  • Retina: Converts light into neural signals.

  • Blind Spot: Area where optic nerve leaves the eye; no photoreceptors.

  • Accommodation: Lens changes shape to focus light on the retina.

Drug Types and Effects:

  • Hallucinogens: Distort perception; affect serotonin (LSD, psilocybin).

  • Opiates: Pain relief and euphoria; high addiction risk (morphine, heroin).

  • Stimulants: Increase neural activity and body functions (caffeine, nicotine, cocaine).

  • Depressants: Reduce neural activity (alcohol, barbiturates).

Brain Imaging Techniques:

  • EEG: Records electrical activity. Useful for sleep studies.

  • fMRI: Shows brain activity by tracking blood flow.

  • MRI: Detailed images of brain structure.

  • CT Scan: Uses X-rays to show brain structure.

Opponent Process Theory: Color perception controlled by opposing systems (red-green, blue-yellow); explains afterimages. Also applies to emotion (emotional rebound after high stimulus).

Trichromatic Theory: Color vision theory that the retina has three types of color receptors: red, green, and blue.

Reflex Arc: A simple neural pathway where the signal bypasses the brain. Example: knee-jerk reflex involves sensory neuron → spinal cord → motor neuron.


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Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): Learning through association. A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a response.

  • UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): Naturally causes response (e.g., food).

  • UCR (Unconditioned Response): Natural reaction (e.g., salivation).

  • CS (Conditioned Stimulus): Originally neutral, now triggers response after association (e.g., bell).

  • CR (Conditioned Response): Learned reaction to CS (e.g., salivation to bell).

Stimulus Generalization: A response to stimuli similar to the original CS. Example: Little Albert feared all furry animals, not just rats.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Learning based on consequences. Behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or weakened if followed by punishment.

Reinforcement: Increases behavior:

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus (e.g., giving candy).

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., taking aspirin for headache).

Punishment: Decreases behavior:

  • Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., giving extra homework).

  • Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus (e.g., taking away phone).

Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior. Example: training a dog to roll over step-by-step.

Aversive Conditioning: Associating a behavior with something unpleasant (e.g., using a bitter substance to stop nail biting).

Taste Aversion: Avoiding a food after a negative experience (nausea), even after one exposure.

Biological Preparedness: Organisms are biologically predisposed to learn some associations more easily (e.g., fear of snakes over flowers).

Object Permanence: Understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight. Develops in Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (0–2 years).

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development:

  • Sensorimotor (0–2 yrs): Object permanence, stranger anxiety.

  • Preoperational (2–7 yrs): Egocentrism, pretend play, lacks conservation.

  • Concrete Operational (7–11 yrs): Logical thinking, conservation.

  • Formal Operational (12+ yrs): Abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking.

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation: Studied attachment types in infants:

  • Secure: Distress when mom leaves, comfort upon return.

  • Avoidant: No reaction when mom leaves/returns.

  • Ambivalent: Extreme distress, but resist comfort.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory:

  • Learning occurs through social interaction.

  • Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): What a child can do with help but not alone.

  • Scaffolding: Temporary support to aid learning.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages: 8 stages of development, each with a crisis (e.g., Identity vs. Role Confusion in adolescence).

Gender Stereotypes: Oversimplified beliefs about gender roles.

Fluid Intelligence: Problem-solving, reasoning (declines with age).

Crystallized Intelligence: Accumulated knowledge and skills (increases with age).

Critical/Sensitive Periods: Optimal timeframes for development (e.g., language).

Language Phonemes: Smallest sound units in language. English has ~40.

Dementia: Progressive loss of memory and cognitive function.

Visual Cliff Experiment: Assesses depth perception in infants (most avoid the “cliff”).

Theory of Mind: Understanding others have different thoughts and feelings. Develops ~age 4–5.

ACES (Adverse Childhood Experiences): Trauma (abuse, neglect) in childhood linked to long-term mental/physical health outcomes.

Latent Learning (Tolman): Learning occurs without reward but is shown when there is motivation. Example: rats in maze with no reward until later.

Cognitive Maps: Mental representation of an environment.

Contact Comfort (Harlow): Infant monkeys preferred soft cloth “mother” over wire mother with food. Comfort > nourishment.

Emotional Intelligence: The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively.

Universality of Emotion: Some facial expressions are recognized across cultures (e.g., happiness, fear, anger).

Belief Perseverance: Tendency to cling to beliefs even when evidence contradicts them.

Collectivist vs. Individualistic Cultures:

  • Collectivist: Group goals > individual (e.g., Japan).

  • Individualistic: Individual goals > group (e.g., USA).

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation:

  • Intrinsic: Doing something for its own sake.

  • Extrinsic: Doing something for a reward or to avoid punishment.

Actor-Observer Bias: Our actions = situational, others’ actions = dispositional.

Out-group Homogeneity Bias: Viewing members of an out-group as more similar to each other than to members of the in-group.

Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness in group settings; leads to impulsive behavior (e.g., riots).

Social Loafing: People exert less effort in a group task.

Informational Social Influence: Conforming because you believe others are correct.

Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures by one’s own cultural standards.

Functional Fixedness: Inability to see new uses for an object.

Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing personality traits and underemphasizing situations when judging others.

Self-Serving Bias: Attribute success to self, failure to external causes.

Just World Hypothesis: Belief that people get what they deserve (can lead to victim-blaming).

Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort from holding two conflicting thoughts; reduced by changing beliefs or behaviors (Festinger).

Conformity: Adjusting behavior to align with group (Asch line experiment).

Central vs. Peripheral Route to Persuasion:

  • Central: Logic, facts.

  • Peripheral: Emotions, attractiveness, cues.

Cultural Norm: Expected behavior in a culture.

Broaden and Build Theory: Positive emotions expand our awareness and encourage novel thoughts and actions.

Locus of Control:

  • Internal: You control your fate.

  • External: Fate/luck controls your life.

Freudian Defense Mechanisms:

  • Repression: Block memory from consciousness.

  • Projection: Attributing your own impulses to others.

  • Sublimation: Channel impulses into acceptable behaviors.

  • Regression: Reverting to earlier behavior.

  • Denial: Refusing to accept reality.

  • Reaction Formation: Acting opposite of true feelings.

  • Rationalization: Creating logical excuses.

  • Displacement: Shifting emotions to a safer target.

Trait Theory (Big Five/OCEAN):

  • Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Humanism (Rogers, Maslow): Emphasizes free will, self-actualization, unconditional positive regard.

Reciprocal Determinism (Bandura): Behavior is influenced by interaction of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

Mere Exposure Effect: Repeated exposure increases liking.

Group Polarization: Group discussion leads to more extreme positions.

Groupthink: Group harmony prioritized over critical thinking.

Incentive Theory: Behavior is motivated by external rewards.

Yerkes-Dodson Law: Moderate arousal = best performance; too much/little = poor performance.

Drive-Reduction Theory: Motivation to reduce internal tension caused by unmet needs.

Display Rules: Cultural norms for emotional expression.

In-Group/Out-Group Bias: Favoring one’s own group over others.

Out-Group Homogeneity: Belief that “they” are all the same.

Biological Approach: Disorders stem from brain structure, neurotransmitters, genetics.

Behavioral Approach: Disorders learned through conditioning. Focus on observable behavior.

Cognitive Approach: Disorders arise from faulty thinking. Treatment targets maladaptive thought patterns.

Social-Cultural Approach: Environment and culture affect mental health.

Psychodynamic Approach: Unconscious conflicts cause disorders. Insight through therapy.

Psychoanalytic (Freud): Emphasizes childhood, unconscious desires, dream analysis, free association.

Evolutionary Approach: Disorders may be remnants of adaptive behaviors (e.g., phobias).

Tend-and-Befriend: Under stress, some seek social support (more common in females).

Biopsychosocial Approach: Interaction of biology, psychology, and environment.

General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye):

  • Alarm → Resistance → Exhaustion during prolonged stress.

Diathesis-Stress Model: Genetic predisposition + stress = likelihood of disorder.

Anxiety Disorders:

  • GAD: Constant, unexplained worry.

  • Phobias: Irrational fears.

  • Agoraphobia: Fear of no escape.

  • Panic Disorder: Sudden attacks of terror.

  • Social Anxiety: Fear of being judged.

OCD:

  • Obsessions: Repetitive unwanted thoughts.

  • Compulsions: Repetitive behaviors.

PTSD: Flashbacks, nightmares, caused by trauma.

Depressive Disorders:

  • Major Depressive Disorder: 2+ weeks of depressive symptoms.

  • Persistent Depressive Disorder: Chronic, less intense depression.

Bipolar Disorders:

  • Bipolar I: Full manic episodes.

  • Bipolar II: Hypomania + depression.

Somatic Symptom & Related Disorders:

  • Illness Anxiety Disorder (Hypochondriasis): Preoccupation with illness.

Schizophrenia:

  • Positive Symptoms: Hallucinations, delusions.

  • Negative Symptoms: Flat affect, lack of motivation.

Dissociative Disorders:

  • Dissociative Identity Disorder: Two or more distinct identities.

  • Dissociative Fugue: Sudden loss of identity and travel.

  • Dissociative Amnesia: Inability to recall personal info.

Personality Disorders:

  • Cluster A (Odd): Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal.

  • Cluster B (Dramatic): Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic.

  • Cluster C (Anxious): Avoidant, Dependent.

Eating Disorders:

  • Anorexia Nervosa: Refusal to maintain healthy weight.

  • Bulimia Nervosa: Bingeing and purging.

Neurodevelopmental Disorders:

  • ADHD: Inattention, impulsivity.

  • Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): Deficits in communication, repetitive behaviors.

Systematic Desensitization: Gradual exposure to fear while using relaxation techniques. Based on classical conditioning.

SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors): Treat depression by increasing serotonin (e.g., Prozac).

Lithium: Mood stabilizer used to treat bipolar disorder.