Modern World History exam review

Absolutism

A system of government in which a ruler holds total power and authority, often justified by divine right.

Revolution

A significant and often violent change in political power or social structure.

Social Contract

An agreement in which people give up some freedoms in exchange for protection and order from the government.

Rule of Law

The principle that all people, including leaders, are subject to and accountable under the law.

Divine Right of Kings

The belief that monarchs receive their authority directly from God and are answerable only to Him.

King Philip II

King of Spain who ruled as an absolute monarch and led Spain during its height of power.

Queen Elizabeth I

Queen of England who strengthened the monarchy, supported Protestantism, and defeated the Spanish Armada.

Spanish Armada

A large Spanish naval fleet defeated by England in 1588, marking the decline of Spanish naval dominance.

Edict of Nantes

A 1598 decree granting religious tolerance to French Protestants (Huguenots).

Thirty Years' War

A destructive European conflict (1618-1648) largely between Catholic and Protestant states.

Peace of Westphalia

The 1648 treaty that ended the Thirty Years' War and recognized state sovereignty.

English Civil War

A conflict between Parliament and the monarchy over power, ending with the execution of King Charles I.

Oliver Cromwell

Leader of the parliamentary forces who ruled England as a military dictator after the civil war.

King James II

King of England whose support of Catholicism and absolutist policies led to his overthrow during the Glorious Revolution of 1688.

The Glorious Revolution

A peaceful overthrow of King James II in 1688 that placed William and Mary on the English throne and limited royal power in favor of Parliament.

William and Mary English Bill of Rights

Established a constitutional monarchy in England by limiting the power of the king and queen and protecting Parliament's authority and individual rights.

Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan)

Argued that people give up freedoms to a strong government in order to maintain order and avoid chaos.

John Locke (Two Treatises of Government)

Believed government exists to protect natural rights—life, liberty, and property—and can be overthrown if it fails to do so.

Cardinal Richelieu

Chief minister of France who strengthened royal power by weakening the nobility and centralizing government authority.

Louis XIV

The absolute monarch of France known as the 'Sun King,' who claimed divine right and built the Palace of Versailles to display royal power.

Czar Peter the Great

Modernized Russia by adopting Western European technology, culture, and military practices while expanding Russian territory.

Ivan the Terrible

First ruler to take the title of Czar of Russia; strengthened central authority but ruled through terror and violence.

Nicolas Copernicus

Proposed the heliocentric theory, stating that the sun—not Earth—is the center of the universe.

Galileo Galilei

Used a telescope to support heliocentric theory and was punished by the Catholic Church for challenging traditional beliefs.

Isaac Newton

Developed laws of motion and gravity, showing that the universe operates according to natural laws.

Ptolemy

Ancient astronomer who supported the geocentric model, placing Earth at the center of the universe.

Geocentric

The belief that Earth is the center of the universe and all celestial bodies revolve around it.

Heliocentric Scientific Revolution

The belief that the sun is the center of the universe and planets revolve around it.

Johannes Kepler

Discovered that planets move in elliptical orbits, supporting the heliocentric model.

Newton's 3rd Law

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Descartes and Rationalism

Believed that human reason and logical thinking are the best ways to gain knowledge.

Frances Bacon

Promoted the scientific method, emphasizing experimentation and observation.

Enlightenment Ideals

Beliefs emphasizing reason, natural rights, liberty, equality, and limited government.

Baron Montesquieu

Enlightenment thinker who argued that dividing government power prevents tyranny.

Three Kinds of Gov't Separation of Powers

Legislative makes laws, executive enforces laws, and judicial interprets laws.

Checks and Balances

A system where each branch of government limits the powers of the others.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Believed government should reflect the 'general will' of the people and support direct democracy.

Adam Smith

Economist who argued that free markets and competition create wealth.

Laissez-Faire

Economic policy that favors little or no government interference in business.

Wealth of Nations

Adam Smith's book explaining capitalism and free-market economics.

Voltaire

Advocated freedom of speech, religion, and criticized government abuse and intolerance.

Classical Liberalism

Political belief in individual rights, limited government, and economic freedom.

Human Nature

Humans are capable of reason and improvement through education and reform.

No Taxation, Without Representation

Colonists' belief that Britain had no right to tax them without colonial representation in Parliament.

Salutary Neglect

British policy of loosely enforcing laws in the colonies, allowing self-government.

Declaration of Independence

Document declaring American independence and asserting natural rights.

Treaty of Paris of 1783

Ended the American Revolution and recognized U.S. independence.

Compromise on Slavery

Founding documents allowed slavery to continue, contradicting Enlightenment ideals.

How enlightened was the American Revolution

Politically enlightened in ideas of liberty and rights but limited by slavery and lack of equality for women and Native Americans.

American Revolution Goal vs. French Revolution Goal

American Revolution sought independence and limited change; French Revolution aimed to completely restructure society.

Three Estates

Social classes in France: clergy (First), nobility (Second), and common people (Third).

Estates General

Representative assembly called to address France's financial crisis.

The 'Society of Thirty'

Group of liberal nobles who pushed for constitutional reform.

Commune of Paris

Radical city government that supported revolutionary violence.

The Declaration of Man and Citizen

Document stating liberty, equality, and popular sovereignty.

The Reign of Terror

Period of mass executions to eliminate enemies of the revolution.

New Constitution destroys Old Regime How

Ended absolute monarchy, feudal privileges, and noble power.

'The Mountain'

Radical political group that supported violence and strong central control.

Girondists

Moderate revolutionary group favoring limited reform.

Reign of Terror: The Purpose

To protect the revolution by eliminating perceived enemies.

The Committee of Public Safety

Governing body that led the Reign of Terror under Robespierre.

Napoleonic Codes

Law code that promoted equality before the law and protected property rights.

Russian Campaign Continental Systems

Napoleon's failed invasion of Russia that weakened his empire.

Congress of Vienna

Meeting to restore order and monarchy after Napoleon's defeat.

American Revolution vs. French Revolution

The American Revolution was less violent and focused on political independence, while the French Revolution was more radical and sought social equality.

Romanticism

A cultural movement that emphasized emotion, nature, individualism, and nationalism as a reaction against reason and industrialization.

Romantic Artists

Artists who focused on dramatic emotion, heroic subjects, and the power of nature rather than realism or logic.

Written Constitutions

Formal documents that outline a government's structure, powers, and citizens' rights.

Congress of Vienna 1814-1815

Meeting of European leaders to restore monarchies, maintain balance of power, and prevent future revolutions.

Justifying Slavery

Arguments used to defend slavery, often claiming economic necessity, racial superiority, or religious approval.

Liberalism

Political belief supporting individual rights, constitutional government, and free markets.

Nationalism

Belief that people sharing culture, language, or history should form their own nation.

Romanticism and Realism

Romanticism emphasized emotion and imagination, while Realism focused on everyday life and social conditions.

Post-Revolution = Conservatism against Liberalism

After revolutions, conservatives sought to restore monarchy and tradition, while liberals pushed for reform and constitutional rights.

Revolutions of 1848

Causes included economic hardship, demands for political reform, and rising nationalism; most uprisings failed but increased calls for democracy and national unity in Europe.

Slavery Abolition Act of 1833

British law that abolished slavery throughout the British Empire.

Compromise of 1867

Created the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, giving Hungarians greater self-rule.

Emancipation Edict

Russian law freeing serfs and granting limited rights.

Louisiana Purchase

The U.S. bought land from France in 1803, doubling its size.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

Exploration of the Louisiana Territory to map land and find a route to the Pacific.

US Annexation of Florida (Adams-Onis Treaty)

Spain ceded Florida to the United States in 1819.

Monroe Doctrine

U.S. policy warning European nations not to interfere in the Americas.

Urbanization

The movement of people from rural areas to cities due to factory jobs.

Free-Enterprise System

An economic system where individuals own businesses and the government has limited involvement.

Great Britain leads the way for Industrialization

Factors include Agricultural Revolution, Food Supply and Manpower, Natural Resources, Markets, Capital.

Cotton Production

The first major industrialized industry, driven by machines like the spinning jenny and power loom.

Cottage Industry

Home-based production system where goods were made by hand before factories.

Textiles

Cloth and fabric goods that were the first mass-produced industrial products.

Development of the Locomotive (George Stephenson)

Stephenson's steam locomotive improved transportation by moving goods and people faster and cheaper.

Transportation Revolution

The expansion of canals, roads, and railroads that boosted trade and industrial growth.

Sir Henry Cort, Bessemer Converter

Cort improved iron production; Bessemer developed a process for making steel cheaply and efficiently.

Ripple Effect

Industrial advances in one area led to growth and change in many other industries.

Electricity

New power source that improved factory efficiency and extended working hours.

Industrialization Spreads

The U.S., Japan, and parts of Europe industrialized rapidly; others industrialized more slowly due to limited resources and colonial control.

Interchangeable Parts

Standardized parts that could be easily replaced, speeding up production.

Assembly Line

A system where workers repeat one task as products move along a line.

Mass Production

Producing large quantities of goods quickly and cheaply.

Industrialization and Society

Population Growth, Working Conditions, Public Health (Infectious Diseases): Improved food supply and medicine led to rapid population increase.

Upper, Middle, and Working Class

The upper class owned factories and wealth, the middle class included professionals and managers, and the working class labored in factories for low wages and long hours.

Immigration to the U.S...Push and Pull Factors

Push factors included poverty, famine, and persecution, while pull factors were job opportunities, freedom, and better living conditions in the U.S.