Applied Anatomy and Physiology

Bones

Bones

Made of connective tissue reinforced with calcium and specialized bone cells, most containing bone marrow and providing structure and support to the body.

Skeleton

A supportive and protective structure of an organism

Musculoskeletal System

Consists of bones, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments, supporting the joint movement, organ protection, and blood cell production

Short Bones

Allows finer controlled movements

Long Bones

Allows gross movement

Flat Bones

Protects vital organs

Functions of the Skeleton

It provides support and structural shape to the body, protects organs, facilitates movements, reservoir for essential minerals, and produces blood cells crucial for oxygen transport.

Latissimus Dorsi

Muscle stabilizing the back and aiding shoulder movements like internal rotation, extension, and adduction.

Deltoid

Shoulder muscles that connects your arm to the trunk of your body which stabilizes your shoulder joint to prevent dislocations when carrying or lifting.

Rotator Cuffs

A group of muscles and tendons that hold the shoulder joint in place and allow you to move your arm and shoulder.

Pectoralis

It is a thick, fan-shaped muscle that lies underneath the breast tissue and act as a strong adductor and internal rotator of the humerus at the shoulder joint.

Biceps

It is a large muscle situated on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow responsible for flexion and supination of forearm.

Triceps

A large, thick muscle on the dorsal part of the upper arm responsible for elbow joint extension.

Abdominals

Muscles forming the abdominal walls, which supports the trunk, allows movement, and hold organs in place by regulating internal abdominal pressure.

Hip flexors

A group of muscles toward the front of the hip, responsible for hip flexion and bringing the knee closer to the chest.

Gluteals

A group of muscles that make up the buttock area which helps to stabilize the upper body and pelvis, aid in locomotion, and extend the hip.

Hamstring Group

Muscles in the posterior compartment of the thigh that consist of biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus which are responsible for extending the hip and flexing the knee.

Quadriceps Group

The group of muscles in front of the thighs functioning to perform various movements such as kicking, running, jumping, and walking.

Gastrocnemius

A complex muscle that is fundamental for walking and posture, forming the major bulk at the back of the lower leg.

Tibialis Anterior

An anterior leg muscle that acts as the main foot dorsiflexor on the ankle joint.

Tendons

A cord of strong and flexible tissue (similar to a rope) that connects the muscles to your bones, responsible for transferring muscle-generated force to the bony skeleton nad facilitating movement around a joint.

Synovial Membrane

Helps to protect the joints that surround it.

Synovial Fluid

Helps to reduce friction between the articular cartilages of synovial joints during movement.

Joint Capsule

Seals the joint space, and provides passive stability by limiting movements and active stability via its proprioceptive nerve endings.

Bursae

These are small fluid-filled sacs that reduce friction between moving parts in your body's joints.

Cartilage

Reduces friction and prevents them from rubbing together when you use your joints.

Ligaments

It stabilizes the joint or holds the ends of two bones together.

Hinge Joint

Allows open and close movement in one direction, located in the elbow, knee, and ankle.

Ball and Socket Joint

Rounded heads of one bone that sits within the cup of another, allowing movement in all directions. It is located in the hip and shoulder.

Saddle Joint

The joint at the base of the thumb that permits back-and-forth and side-to-side movement, but does not allow rotation.

Candyloid Joint

Located at the jaw or finger joints, allowing movement without rotation.

Pivot Joint

The joint between the first and second vertebrae of the neck where one bone swivels around the ring formed by another bone.

Gliding Joint

Like in wrist joints, the smooth surfaces slip over one another, allowing limited movement.

Flexion/extension at the shoulder, elbow, hip, and knee

The elbow and knee joint is a hinge joint that allows bending and straightening movements in one plane while the shoulder and hip is a ball-and-socket joint that provides a wide range of motion, allowing flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and rotation.

Abduction/Adduction at the shoulder

The ball-and-socket joint type of shoulder allows the humerus to move outward and upward (abduction), and inward and downward (adduction) allowing the arms to be raised laterally and be brought back to the body’s midline.

Rotation of the shoulder

The shoulder’s ball-and-socket joint structure facilitates and allows internal and external rotation due to a high degree of mobility.

Circumduction of the shoulder

Shoulder’s joint structure allows it to move in a circular path by combining flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction accordingly.

Plantar flexion/Dorsiflexion at the ankle

The ankle’s hinge joint type allows the foot to pivot around its axis while the top of the foot moves away from the leg (plantar flexion) and pivots in the opposite direction by bringing the top of the foot closer to the leg (dorsiflexion).

Shoulder Muscles

Rotator cuffs muscle, deltoid, trapezius, and rhomboids.

Elbow Muscles

Brachialis (lateral portion), the anconeus, the supinator muscle, brachioradialis, and triceps brachii.

Hip Muscles

Gluteal, adductor, iliopsoas, and lateral rotator.

Knee Muscles

The quadriceps (on the anterior side of the knee and femur), and the hamstrings (on the posterior side).

Ankle Muscles

The tibialis anterior, the extensor digitorum longus, the extensor hallucis longus, and the peroneus tertius.

Prime Movers (Agonist Muscle)

A muscle that provides the primary force of driving action.

Antagonist Muscle

A muscle that provides resistance or reverses a given movement.

Shoulder Bones

The scapula (shoulder blade), clavicle (collarbone) and humerus (upper arm bone)

Elbow Bones

humerus, ulna, and radius

Hip Bones

The femur (thighbone), and the pelvis (made up of three bones called ilium, ischium and pubis)

Knee Bones

femur (thighbone), tibia (lower leg bone), and patella (kneecap)

Ankle Bones

talus (small ankle bone), tibia, and fibula

Isometric Contractions

A muscle contraction doesn't noticeably change the length and the affected joint also doesn't move.

Isotonic Contractions

A contraction where the tension in the muscle remains unchanged despite a change in muscle length.

Concentric Contractions

Shortening of the muscle with the requisite movement of the origin or insertion and limb translation.

Eccentric Contractions

A lengthening contraction that occurs when a force applied to the muscle exceeds the momentary force produced by the muscle itself.

The Pathway of Air

Air is inhaled through the nose and/or mouth. It then moves through the pharynx, larynx, and trachea to the bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli, into the lungs.

Pharynx

A muscular tube in the middle of your neck.

Larynx

A hollow tube in the middle of your neck containing the vocal chords.

Trachea

A long, U-shaped tube that connects your larynx (voice box) to your lungs.

Bronchi

Are large tubes that connect to your trachea and direct the air you breathe to your right and left lungs.

Bronchioles

The smallest airways.

Alveoli

Are very small air sacs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.

Gas Exchange

Occurs in the respiratory zone where alveoli are present with features like large surface area, thin walls, short diffusion pathway, capillaries, and movement from high to low concentration.

Haemoglobin

Contains iron that allows it to pick up oxygen from the air we breathe and deliver it everywhere in the body. (It can also carry carbon dioxide)

Oxyhaemoglobin

A compound of haemoglobin with oxygen is the chief means of transportation of oxygen from the air in the lungs, by way of the blood to the tissues.

Blood Vessels

Are the channels that carry blood throughout your body.

Arteries

Carry oxygen-rich blood from heart, withstand high pressure, do not participate in gas exchange, have elastic fibers and smooth muscles for regulation.

Capillaries

Delicate vessels that transport blood, nutrients, and oxygen to cells, with a small diameter and thin walls facilitating efficient gas exchange in tissues.

Veins

Carries deoxygenated blood, does not directly participate in gas exchange, facilitates blood flow back to the heart, and helps to prevent backflow of blood.

Vasoconstriction

The narrowing (constriction) of blood vessels by small muscles in their walls.

Vasodilation

The widening of blood vessels as a result of the relaxation of the blood vessel's muscular walls.

Aorta

Largest artery carrying oxygenated blood away from the heart to various body parts.

Right and Left Pulmonary Arteries

Arteries that carries the deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs for oxygenation.

Superior Vena Cava

Collects deoxygenated blood from the upper body and returns it to the right atrium of the heart.

Inferior Vena Cava

Collects deoxygenated blood from the lower part of the body.

Pulmonary Veins

The four pulmonary veins (two from each lung) that carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.

Heart Chambers

left and right atrium (upper chambers) and left and right ventricles (lower chambers)

Heart Wall

It consist of endocardium, myocardium, and epicardium.

Endocardium

Innermost layer lining the heart chambers, ensuring smooth blood flow.

Myocardium

The thick, muscular middle layer responsible for pumping blood.

Epicardium

The outermost layer, also known as the visceral pericardium, which is a protective layer covering the heart.

Atrioventricular Valves

Tricuspid and Bicuspid valves (located between the atria and ventricles) prevent the backflow of blood.

Pulmonary Valve

Guards the entrance to the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle.

Aortic Valve

It guards the entrance to the aorta from the left ventricle.

Fibrous Pericardium

The tough outer sac that encloses and protects the heart.

Serous Pericardium

A double-layered membrane consisting of the parietal and visceral layers (epicardium).

Coronary Arteries

Supplies the heart muscle (myocardium) with oxygen and nutrients.

Coronary Veins

It collects deoxygenated blood from the myocardium and return it to the right atrium.

Atrial Systole (Contraction)

The contraction of the atria forces blood into the ventricles, completing the filling of the ventricles.

Ventricular Systole (Isovolumetric Contraction)

The ventricles contract in response to electrical signals from the atrioventricular (AV) node. It is also where ventricular ejection happen.

Atrial Diastole (Relaxation)

After contraction, the atria relax (diastole), allowing blood from the veins to flow into the atria. (ventricular filling)

Ventricular Diastole (Isovolumetric Relaxation)

The ventricles relax (diastole), causing a decrease in ventricular pressure. During this phase, all four heart valves are closed, and the volume of blood in the ventricles remains constant.

Cardiac Output

Volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute, influenced by heart rate and stroke volume, reflecting the body's demand for oxygen and nutrients.

Inhaling at Rest

Has the coordinated action of intercostal muscles, rib cage, and diaphragm to increase the volume of the thoracic cavity, allowing air to flow into the lungs.

Exhaling at Rest

Involves the relaxation of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles.

Spirometer Trace

A graphical representation of the volume of air inspired or expired by a person as a function of time during respiratory manoeuvres.

Tidal Volume

Volume of air inspired or expired during normal breathing, visible as rhythmic waves on a spirometer trace.

Expiratory Reserve Volume

Additional air volume that can be expired beyond tidal volume during forced exhalation, seen as increased vertical distance on a spirometer trace.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume

The additional volume of air that can be inspired beyond the tidal volume during a deep inhalation.

Residual Volume

The volume of air that remains in the lungs after a maximal exhalation.

Aerobic Exercise

A rhythmic and repetitive physical activity that uses your body’s large muscle groups, increasing the heart rate and the oxygen that the body uses.