Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Tolman’s learning theory human development/ lifespan psychology ​the personal fable the imaginary audience ​postconventional ​conventional ​preconventional Kübler-Ross stages of dying Learning Memory ​storage ​retrieval ​encoding the information processing eidetic memory ​ sensory memory long-term memory short-term memory echoic memory iconic memory selective attention the cocktail party effect Miller’s “magic number” Chunking ​UCR (UR) ​UCS (US) ​CER ​CR ​CS ​punishment by removal/ negative punishment ​positive punishment ​positive reinforcement ​negative reinforcement instinctive drift behavior modification stimulus discrimination extinction stimulus generalization spontaneous recovery counterconditioning vicarious conditioning conditioned emotional responses higher-order conditioning conditioned taste aversions (examples) Watson Skinner Pavlov Thorndike 5 schedules of reinforcement (examples) cohort effect longitudinal design cross-sectional design cross-sequential nature vs. nurture ​behavior genetics ​dominant ​recessive ​monozygotic vs dizygotic twins most likely time for a miscarriage is during the _______ months

Classical conditioning

A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired, leading to a learned response.

Operant conditioning

A method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.

Tolman’s learning theory

Suggests that learning involves mental processes and that individuals can learn without direct reinforcement.

Human development/lifespan psychology

The study of how people change and grow from conception through old age.

The personal fable

A belief held by adolescents that they are unique and special, leading to a sense of invulnerability.

The imaginary audience

The belief that one is always being observed and judged by others, particularly prevalent in adolescents.

Postconventional

A level of moral reasoning in which individuals base their morals on personal principles rather than rules.

Conventional

A level of moral reasoning that is based on social norms and the expectations of others.

Preconventional

A level of moral reasoning where punishment and reward influence moral decisions.

Kübler-Ross stages of dying

A model outlining the stages of grief: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

Memory

The mental capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information.

Storage

The process of retaining information in memory over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing into consciousness information stored in memory.

Encoding

The initial process of converting sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.

The information processing model

A framework used to explain how the human mind processes information.

Eidetic memory

The ability to recall images, sounds, or objects in memory with high precision after only brief exposure.

Sensory memory

A very brief form of memory that acts as a holding area for sensory information.

Long-term memory

The type of memory that has the capacity to store vast amounts of information for lengthy periods.

Short-term memory

The part of memory where small amounts of information can be temporarily held for a short duration.

Echoic memory

A type of sensory memory that retains auditory information.

Iconic memory

A type of sensory memory that retains visual information.

Selective attention

The process by which a person focuses on one stimulus while ignoring others.

The cocktail party effect

The ability to focus one's auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli.

Miller’s magic number

The hypothesis that the number of objects an average person can hold in working memory is about seven.

Chunking

A memory technique that involves grouping information into larger, more manageable units.

UCR (UR)

Unconditional response; the automatic and natural reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

UCS (US)

Unconditioned stimulus; a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

CER

Conditioned emotional response; an emotional reaction to a stimulus that has become associated with a negative experience.

CR

Conditioned response; the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

CS

Conditioned stimulus; a previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

Punishment by removal/negative punishment

A consequence that involves removing a preferred stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Positive punishment

Adding an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior.

Instinctive drift

The tendency for animals to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with the conditioned response.

Behavior modification

The use of operant conditioning techniques to change behavior.

Stimulus discrimination

The ability to differentiate between different stimuli and respond differently.

Extinction

The process where a conditioned response diminishes over time when the reinforcement is no longer provided.

Stimulus generalization

The tendency for a conditioned response to occur in response to similar stimuli.

Spontaneous recovery

The sudden reappearance of a conditioned response after a pause.

Counterconditioning

A technique used to replace an unwanted response to a stimulus with a desired response.

Vicarious conditioning

Learning that occurs by observing the experiences of others.

Conditioned emotional responses

Emotional responses that have been conditioned to occur in reaction to previously neutral stimuli.

Higher-order conditioning

A process where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus to create a second conditioned response.

Conditioned taste aversions

Learning to avoid a certain food after having an adverse reaction or illness associated with it.

Watson

John B. Watson, known for his work in behaviorism and classical conditioning.

Skinner

B.F. Skinner, known for his work in operant conditioning and reinforcement.

Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov, known for his experiments with classical conditioning using dogs.

Thorndike

Edward Thorndike, known for his law of effect in learning.

5 schedules of reinforcement

Different methods used in operant conditioning to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, such as fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval, and continuous reinforcement.

Cohort effect

The impact of being born in the same time period and experiencing the same events, influencing development.

Longitudinal design

A research design that studies the same individuals over time.

Cross-sectional design

A research design that compares different groups at one point in time.

Cross-sequential

A research design that combines both longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches.

Nature vs. nurture

A debate concerning whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) have a greater influence on development.

Behavior genetics

The field of study that examines the role of genetics in behavior.

Dominant

A trait that is expressed if at least one copy of the gene is present.

Recessive

A trait that is expressed only when two copies of the gene are present.

Monozygotic vs dizygotic twins

Monozygotic twins are identical twins formed from one fertilized egg; dizygotic twins are fraternal twins formed from two separate eggs.

Most likely time for a miscarriage is during the _ months.

First three months.

Sense that is MOST functional at birth

Touch.

Sense that is LEAST functional at birth

Vision.

Newborn reflexes

Automatic responses such as grasping, sucking, and rooting that are present at birth.

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

A theory outlining four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Puberty – according to textbook

The period of development during which an individual becomes physically capable of reproduction.

Scaffolding

A teaching method that involves providing support to students as they learn new concepts.

3 temperaments

The three primary temperaments identified are easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up.

Ainsworth’s “strange situation”

An experimental paradigm used to assess attachment styles in infants.