Cognitive Psychology

Abstract v. verbal measures of intelligence

Abstract: Tests that use non-verbal measures to assess abilities

Verbal: Tests that use verbal measures to assess abilities

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

Amnesia

memory loss

Anterograde v. retrograde amnesia

●Anterograde Amnesia: inability to form new memories following an injury.

●Retrograde Amnesia: inability to retrieve old memories following an injury.

Aptitude v. achievement tests

Aptitude tests are intended to predict your ability to learn a new skill

Achievement tests are intended to reflect what you have already learned.

Autism Spectrum Disorder

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

Basic, superordinate, and subordinate categories

The most general form of a concept

"Animal"

"Fruit"

Middle level of concept

"Dog"

"Apple"

Most specific concept

"German Shepard"

"Gala Apple"

belief perseverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

blind spot bias

recognizing bias in others, but failing to recognize it in yourself

Chunking

the process by which the mind divides large pieces of information into smaller units (chunks) that are easier to retain in short-term memory.

cocktail-party effect

Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd

concept

an idea that represents a class of objects or events or their properties, such as cats, walking, honesty, blue, or fast.

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

constructive memory

remembering conceived as involving the use of general knowledge stored in one's memory to construct a more complete and detailed account of an event or experience by changing or filling in various features of the memory

context dependent memory and state dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

improved recall of specific episodes or information when cues relating to emotional and physical state are the same during encoding and retrieval.

cultural bias in IQ tests

the tendency for IQ tests to reflect the culture of test designers

declarative (explicit) and non declarative (implicit) memory

A form of long-term memory that involves knowing something is the case; it involves conscious recollection and includes memory for facts (semantic memory) and event (episodic memory); sometimes known as explicit memory.

involves skills and associations that are acquired and retrieved at an unconscious level.

deep v. shallow processing

cognitive processing of a stimulus that focuses on its meaningful properties rather than its perceptual characteristics.

cognitive processing of a stimulus that focuses on its superficial, perceptual characteristics rather than its meaning.

distributed practice vs. massed practice

-- Distributed: spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods, NOT cramming causes better retrieval

-- Massed: studying a complete body of information all at once, CRAMS

divergent and convergent thinking

Divergent Thinking = if many correct answers are possible; ex. brain storming

Convergent Thinking = if there is only one correct answer, narrowing choices so that only one answer remains; ex. process of elimination on multiple choice tests

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

effortful v. automatic processing

Effortful: controlled; actively work to gain information

Automatic: gain information without effort; passively absorb from environment

Eidetic imagery

the ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more

elaborative rehearsal

an encoding strategy to facilitate the formation of memory by linking new information to what one already knows.

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

encoding and encoding failure

the conversion of a sensory input into a form capable of being processed and deposited in memory. Encoding is the first stage of memory processing, followed by retention and then retrieval.

a breakdown in the process of getting information in to the cognitive system.

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

false memory

a distorted or fabricated recollection of something that did not actually occur

fixed v. growth mindset

-in which they believe that their qualities are

-in which they believe their qualities can change and improve through their effort

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

fluid and crystallized intelligence

fluid intelligence: one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.

crystallized intelligence: one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

flynn effect

The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations

focused and divided attention

the ability to respond discretely to specific stimuli

sharing attention between tasks.

forgetting curve

A graph showing retention and forgetting over time.

framing

the process of defining the context or issues surrounding a question, problem, or event in a way that serves to influence how the context or issues are perceived and evaluated.

functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use

general intelligence (g factor) v. specific intelligence (s factor)

the ability of individuals to solve complex problems

giftedness

the state of possessing a great amount of natural ability, talent, or intelligence, which usually becomes evident at a very young age.

grammar

in linguistics, an abstract system of rules that describes how a language works

Heritability

the ability of a trait to be passed down from one generation to the next

heuristic, availability heuristic, and representativness heuristic

in cognition, an experience-based strategy for solving a problem or making a decision that often provides an efficient means of finding an answer but cannot guarantee a correct outcome.

Availability Heuristic: Judging how likely a certain event is to happen based on how easily information regarding this topic is available.

Representativeness Heuristic: A mental shortcut in which one thinks of the best example or a prototype of a given category.

hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

holophrastic stage v. telegraphic speech

approx. 12 months= complete thought with one word

approx. 16 or 18 mon= 2-3 word utterances like "me walk"

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Information-processing model of memory

a model that suggests that information must pass through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory in order to become firmly embedded in memory

intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100

interference theory: proactive and retroactive interference

interference in new learning due to previous learning of similar or related material.

interference that occurs when new learning or exposure to new information impairs the ability to remember material or carry out activities previously learned, especially if the two sets of material are similar.

IQ test

a test designed to measure intellectual aptitude, or ability to learn in school

key-word method

associate familiar word with new word by generating an image

language acquisition device

Chomsky's concept of an innate, prewired mechanism in the brain that allows children to acquire language naturally

levels of processing

The idea that the way information is encoded affects how well it is remembered. The deeper the level of processing, the easier the information is to recall.

long-term potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

magic number 7 plus or minus 2

short term memory is limited to holding seven (plus or minus two) information bits at once

maintenance rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it

Mental and chronological age

But your mental age, aka intellectual age, is determined by your attitude, behavior, and intelligence.

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

method of loci

A mnemonic device that involves taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations.