Research Methods

Define correlation

When one event occurs, so does another.

What is qualitative data?

Data generally expressed in words - describing a ‘quality’ or ‘feel’. Used to get opinions on certain feelings and experiences.

What is quantitative data?

Data that you express in numerical form, normally gathered to create a statistics.

What is primary data?

Information collected by sociologists first-hand, eg. social surveys, observation, experiments.

What is secondary data?

Data collected by someone else that a sociologist uses.

How do positivists see sociology?

As the scientific study of objectives facts.

How do interpretivists see sociology?

They think sociology should look at actors meanings and social constructs.

What is validity?

How far it gives a true picture of a subject.

What is reliability?

If the same research was repeated it should get the same results - if not we can’t rely on the evidence.

What is representativeness?

Whether a sample is good example of what the rest of the population looks like.

What are generalisations?

A general statement or conclusion that applies not only to the sample, but the broader population the sample represents..

What issues must be taken into consideration when planning to research?

Money: larger studies cost more money

Requirement of funding bodies (may require data in a specific form)

What ethical principles must be taken into consideration when planning to research?

Consent: the participants should be aware of the purpose of the study and how the data will be used.

Confidentiality: anonymity and privacy should be respected and personal information kept confidential.

Harm: research must not harm the participants, this includes psychological harm and harm to reputation and employment.

What is simple random sampling?

When everyone has equal chances of selection. Computers can be used for this.

What is systematic random sampling?

Taking every ‘nth’ item from the sampling frame. Ensures no computer bias.

What is stratified random sampling?

Dividing population into strata (layers of subgroups, e.g. males under 30, females under 30…) and then drawing a sample from each subgroup in proportion to their numbers in the population.

What is snowball sampling?

Some populations have no sampling frames, eg. homeless people. Snowball sampling is where the researcher contacts one member of the population, gradually gaining their confidence until they’re willing to identify others who may cooperate so likely to be unrepresentative.

What is quota sampling?

Each interviewer has to interview an exact quota from categories in proportion numbers in the wider population.

What is purposive sampling?

When a sample is selected according to a known characteristic, eg. occupation.

What is a survey?

A strategy that uses methods such as telephone surveys, postal/online questionnaires etc.

Involves collecting a large amount of data from a large sample.

Has set questions which are standardised so each respondent answers the same questions in the same order.

What are some advantages of surveys?

Reliable

Can colllect a large amount of quantitative data

Representative of society - can include all variables - age, gender etc.

What are some disadvantages of surveys?

Can be difficult and time consuming to interpret

Low response rates may make them unrepresentative

People may be dishonest

What are open ended questions?

Questions that invited an extended response.They can give valuable data but can be difficult / time consuming to analyse.

What are closed questions?

Questions that only allow a restricted number of options. They’re quite straightforward to analyse restrict respondents to a limited number of options.

What are questionnaires?

A list of predetermined questions completed by a respondent.

What are some advantages of questionnaires?

Easier to access / fill in than physically meet with interviewers.

Easy to send out to a large sample.

What are some limitations of questionnaires?

Interviewer not present to clarify questions

Respondent may not complete all questions

Response rate is low so those who do not respond may be unrepresentative

Describe the (8) stages in the research process

Reviewing the existing literature

Developing the research questions, aims or hypotheses

Chosing a research method or methods

Carrying out a pilot study

Selecting a sample

Collecting the data

Analysing the data

Evaluating the research

Describe more in depth the first stage of the research process.

Reviewing existing literature

A sociologist will read up on any relevant studies which allows them to become familiar with key concepts, theories etc. This may help to identify an uninvestigated area allowing fresh and original data / knowledge.

What is a pilot study?

A small scale trial run carried out before the main research, it allows the reearcher to check if the main study is likely to generate relevant data that can be used to address the research questions and aims.

What are group interviews and focus groups?

They both involve the research of talking to groups of people and both gather quantitative data. However, focus groups tend to explore group interactions and cover one theme or topic; whereas group interviews may cover a wide range of topics.

What are are advantages of group interviews and focus groups.

Can gather a wide range of views

Strength in numbers can make the respondents feel more relaxed and willing / confident to share experiences.

Respondents can be used to take part in further follow-up individual interviews.

What are are some limitations of group interviews and focus groups.

Can be difficult to manage, especially with sensitive topics

The interviewees may influence eachother, some may dominate, some may be less open

Can be difficult to transcribe - especially if they talk over eachother and have similar voices.

What is a longitudinal study?

A study that follows the same group of people over time. After the initial survey/interview takes place, follow-up surveys/interviews are carried out at intervals over several years, allowing the researcher to study changes in individual's behaviour, values and opinions over time.

Name some limitations of longitudinal studies.

Relatively expensive and time consuming

There are problems in maintaining contact with the original sample over time

People may change their minds and decide to withdraw from the study

What is participant observation?

Where the researcher joins a group and participates in its daily activities in order to investigate it.

With overt PO, the group is not informed they are taking part in a study. This may be the only way to study criminal groups.

Critics argue this is unethical as it invades peoples privacy and isn’t based on informed consent.

Name some advantages of participant observation

The researcher can study a group in its natural everyday settings and observe its activities as they occur.

POs are usually carried out over time allowing the researcher to gain trust, perhaps leading to them hearing or seeing things they wouldn't normally have access to.

By giving a true picture of the meanings behind behaviour, PO gathers valid data

Name some limitations of participant observation

May be difficult to gain entry to a group and develop trust

The observer effect (where the observers presence may influence the group’s behaviour) may occur, affecting the validity of the findings

They're unique and impossible to replicate to check the reliability of the findings so difficult to generalise about similar groups

What is non-participant observation?

Where the researcher studies the group by observing its activities without taking part in them

Name some advantages of non-participant observation

They can take notes freely

The are less likely than POs to get too drawn in to the groups activities

May be more objective

Name some limitations of non-participant observation

NPOs are less likely than POs to understand things in thee same way as group members

The observer effect may invalidate findings

What are official statistics?

Official statistics such as crime rates are an example of quantitative secondary data.

They are compiled by government departments and agencies such as the office for national statistis (ONS)

What are some limitations of official statistics?

May not tell sociologists exactly what they want to know about a particular issue. For example, divorce statistics provide information about the number of divorces recorded each year but exclude empty shell marriages.

Socilogists cannot check the validity of them