Unit 4 Ap Psychology Vocabulary

Dispositional Attribution

the ascription of one’s own or another’s actions, an event, or an outcome to internal or psychological causes specific to the person concerned, such as traits, moods, attitudes, decisions and judgments, abilities, or effort.This contrasts with situational attribution, which assigns causes to external factors.

Situational Attribution

the ascription of one’s own or another’s behavior, an event, or an outcome to causes outside the person concerned, such as luck, pressure from other people, or external circumstances.

Explanatory Style

an individual’s unique way of describing and explaining some phenomenon, event, or personal history.

Optimism

hopefulness: the attitude that good things will happen and that people’s wishes or aims will ultimately be fulfilled.

Pessimism

the attitude that things will go wrong and that people’s wishes or aims are unlikely to be fulfilled. Pessimists are people who expect bad things to happen to them and to others or who are otherwise doubtful or hesitant about positive outcomes.

Actor–Observer Effect

in attribution theory, the tendency for individuals acting in a situation to attribute the causes of their behavior to external or situational factors, such as social pressure, but for observers to attribute the same behavior to internal or dispositional factors, such as personality.This effect highlights the discrepancy between how we perceive our own actions versus those of others.

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and underestimate situational factors when explaining other people's behavior.

Self-Serving Bias

the tendency to interpret events in a way that assigns credit for success to oneself but denies one’s responsibility for failure, which is blamed on external factors.This cognitive bias protects self-esteem by attributing positive outcomes to personal qualities while attributing negative outcomes to external circumstances.

Internal Locus of Control

the belief that one has control over their own life and outcomes through their actions, as opposed to external factors.

Mere Exposure Effect

the psychological phenomenon whereby individuals develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them.

External Locus of Control

the belief that one's life outcomes are largely determined by external factors or fate, rather than personal actions.

Person Perception

the process of forming impressions about others based on observations, interactions, and social cues.

Self-fulling Prophecy

a situation where a person's expectations about another individual lead to the fulfillment of those expectations.

Social Comparison

the process of comparing oneself to others to evaluate personal abilities, opinions, or achievements.

Relative Deprivation

the perception that one is worse off compared to others, leading to feelings of dissatisfaction and resentment.

Stereotype

a widely held but oversimplified belief or idea about a particular group of people.

Prejudice

a preconceived opinion or judgment about an individual or group, often based on stereotypes and not on actual experience.

Discrimination

the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, often based on race, age, or gender.

Implicit Attitudes

attitudes that are automatically activated and influence behavior without conscious awareness.

Just-World-Phenomenon

the belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Out-Group homogeneity Bias

the tendency to perceive members of an out-group as more similar to each other than they really are.

In-group Bias

the tendency to favor one's own group over others.

Ethnocentrism

the belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group and the tendency to view other cultures from the perspective of one's own.

Belief Perseverance

the tendency to hold on to one's beliefs even when confronted with contradictory evidence.

Conformation Bias

when people only look for information that supports what they already believe and ignore anything that says otherwise.

Cognitive Dissonance

the uncomfortable feeling you get when your actions don’t match your beliefs, making you want to change one to feel better.

Social Norms

The expected ways of thinking, behaving, and interacting within a society or group. They can be formal (like laws) or informal (like table manners), and they help maintain order and predictability in social interactions.

Social Influence Theory

that people change their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors in response to social pressure from others. This can happen through conformity (adjusting to fit in), compliance (agreeing to a request), or obedience (following authority).

Normative Influence

when people change their behavior to fit in with a group because they want to be liked or accepted, even if they don’t necessarily agree with the group’s views. This often leads to conformity due to social pressure.

Informational Influence

when people conform because they believe others have more knowledge or accurate information, especially in uncertain situations. This leads them to adopt the group's behavior or opinions, thinking it’s the right choice.

Persuasion

the process of influencing someone’s beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors through communication, often using logic, emotions, or credibility to convince them to change their viewpoint.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) explains how people are persuaded through two different routes central route, peripheral route.

Central Route to Persuasion

When people carefully think about a message, focusing on facts and logic. This works best when they are motivated and able to analyze the information.

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

When people are influenced by superficial cues, like a speaker’s attractiveness or popularity, rather than the actual message. This happens when they are less engaged or lack the ability to process the information deeply.

Halo Effect

is a cognitive bias where our overall impression of a person, brand, or thing influences how we judge their other traits. For example, if someone is physically attractive, we might automatically assume they are also kind, smart, or talented, even without evidence.

Foot-in-the-door Technique

is a persuasion strategy where a person first makes a small request that’s easy to agree to, and once it’s accepted, they follow up with a larger, related request. The idea is that agreeing to the small request makes it more likely the person will agree to the bigger one later.

Door-in-the-face Technique

is a persuasion strategy where someone first makes a large request that is likely to be rejected, and then follows it up with a smaller, more reasonable request. The smaller request seems more acceptable by comparison, making it more likely to be agreed to.

Conformity

is the tendency to adjust one’s thoughts, behaviors, or beliefs to match those of a group or social norm, often to fit in or avoid standing out.

Obedience

is the act of following direct orders or instructions from an authority figure, even if it goes against personal beliefs or values. It involves complying with commands, typically from someone in a position of power or control.

Individualism

is a social theory or belief that emphasizes the importance of personal independence, self-reliance, and individual rights over the collective or group needs. In cultures that value individualism, people are encouraged to make decisions based on their personal goals and desires, rather than following group norms or expectations.

Collectivism

is the belief or practice that prioritizes the needs, goals, and well-being of the group over those of the individual.

Multiculturalism

is the coexistence of different cultural groups within a society, where diverse cultural identities are recognized, respected, and valued. It encourages the celebration of cultural differences and promotes equality and inclusion, allowing individuals from various backgrounds to maintain their traditions while contributing to the wider community.

Group Polarization

is the tendency for a group’s attitudes or opinions to become more extreme after discussions or interactions within the group.

Groupthink

is a psychological phenomenon where the desire for harmony and consensus within a group leads to poor decision-making. Members may suppress their own doubts or fail to consider alternative viewpoints to avoid conflict, which can result in decisions that are not critically evaluated and may not be the best choice.

Diffusion of Responsibility

is a social phenomenon where individuals are less likely to take action or feel responsible for helping when others are present. The more people there are, the more the responsibility is spread out, leading to a reduced sense of personal obligation. This often occurs in situations like emergencies, where people assume someone else will step in.

Social Loafing

is the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone.

Deindividuation

is a psychological state where individuals in a group lose self-awareness and feel less accountable for their actions.

Social Facilitation

is the tendency for people to perform better on tasks when they are being watched or in the presence of others.

False Consensus Effect

is a cognitive bias where people tend to overestimate how much others share their beliefs, opinions, or behaviors. This leads them to assume that their own views are more widely accepted or common than they actually are.

Superordinate Goals

are shared goals that require cooperation between two or more groups, helping to reduce conflict and promote unity.

Social Traps

are situations where individuals or groups make decisions that are good for them in the short term but lead to negative outcomes for everyone in the long run.

Industrial/Organizational Psychologists

study human behavior in workplace settings and apply psychological principles to improve productivity, employee satisfaction, and overall organizational effectiveness. They might focus on areas like hiring practices, training, performance evaluation, motivation, and workplace culture to help organizations run more smoothly and enhance worker well-being.

Altruism

is the selfless concern for the well-being of others, often leading people to help or sacrifice for others without expecting anything in return.

Social Reciprocity Norm

is the expectation that people will respond to each other’s actions with similar actions—essentially, "you help me, and I'll help you."

Social Responsibility Norm

is the belief that people should help those who are in need or less fortunate, even if they don't expect anything in return.

Bystander Effect

is the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to someone in need when others are present. The more people there are, the less personal responsibility each person feels, often leading to inaction. This effect is stronger in larger groups, as individuals assume someone else will take responsibility.

List ego defense mechanisms

are unconscious strategies used by the mind to protect itself from anxiety, stress, or conflict.

Unconditional Positive Regard

is a concept in humanistic psychology, especially associated with Carl Rogers. It refers to accepting and supporting someone without judgment or conditions, regardless of their actions or feelings. This kind of acceptance helps people feel valued and understood, fostering personal growth and self-acceptance.

Self-Actualizing Tendency

is the inherent drive within every person to grow, develop, and reach their fullest potential. It’s the desire to become the best version of oneself, pursuing personal fulfillment, creativity, and meaningful goals.

Reciprocal Determinism

is a concept introduced by psychologist Albert Bandura, which suggests that a person's behavior, personal factors (like thoughts and emotions), and environmental influences all interact and influence each other.

Self-Efficacy

is the belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task. It influences how people approach challenges, set goals, and persevere in the face of obstacles. High self-efficacy can lead to greater motivation and a willingness to take on challenges, while low self-efficacy can result in avoidance and feelings of helplessness. The concept was introduced by Albert Bandura.

Self-Concept

is the overall understanding and perception a person has of themselves. It includes aspects like how they see their abilities, traits, values, and roles in life.

Self-Esteem

refers to how a person feels about their own worth or value. It involves self-judgment and reflects the overall sense of confidence, respect, and acceptance one has for themselves.

Trait view on personality

focuses on identifying and measuring individual personality characteristics, or traits, that are consistent over time and across different situations.

Big 5 theory

human personality can be described by five broad traits: Openness to Experience (imagination and curiosity), Conscientiousness (organization and reliability), Extraversion (sociability and energy), Agreeableness (compassion and cooperation), and Neuroticism (tendency toward negative emotions like anxiety and sadness), which are relatively stable across a person's life.

Openness

refers to a person’s willingness to experience new ideas, adventures, and creative pursuits. People high in openness tend to be imaginative, curious, and open-minded, while those low in openness may prefer routine, tradition, and familiar experiences.

Conscientiousness

refers to a person’s degree of self-discipline, organization, and dependability. People high in conscientiousness are typically goal-oriented, responsible, and careful in their actions, while those low in conscientiousness may be more spontaneous, disorganized, and less focused on long-term goals.

Extraversion

refers to the extent to which a person is outgoing, energetic, and sociable. People high in extraversion enjoy social interactions, seek excitement, and are often talkative, while those low in extraversion, or introverts, may prefer solitude, quiet environments, and tend to be more reserved.

Agreeableness

refers to a person’s tendency to be compassionate, cooperative, and empathetic toward others. People high in agreeableness are often kind, trusting, and helpful, while those low in agreeableness may be more competitive, critical, or less concerned with others' feelings.

Neuroticism

refers to the tendency to experience negative emotions such as anxiety, anger, sadness, or insecurity. People high in neuroticism may be more prone to stress, emotional instability, and mood swings, while those low in neuroticism tend to be more emotionally resilient and stable.

Drive-Reduction Theory

suggests that behavior is motivated by the need to reduce internal tensions caused by unmet biological drives, such as hunger, thirst, or the need for warmth. According to this theory, when a drive creates a state of discomfort or imbalance, people are motivated to engage in behaviors that will reduce that tension and restore homeostasis.

Homeostasis

the process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment, despite external changes

Arousal Theory

suggests that people are motivated to engage in behaviors that maintain an optimal level of arousal (mental and physical alertness). According to this theory, individuals seek activities that help them reach a balance: too little arousal can lead to boredom, while too much can cause stress.

Optimal Arousal

refers to the ideal level of mental and physical stimulation that leads to peak performance and well-being.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

states that there is an optimal level of arousal for performance, with moderate arousal leading to the best outcomes. It suggests that for simple or well-practiced tasks, higher levels of arousal can improve performance, while for complex or unfamiliar tasks, lower levels of arousal are more effective to avoid stress or anxiety that could hinder performance.

Self Determination Theory

is a psychological theory that focuses on the intrinsic motivation behind human behavior and emphasizes the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in fostering motivation and well-being.

Intrinsic Motivation

is the drive to engage in an activity for its own sake, because it is inherently enjoyable, interesting, or satisfying, rather than for an external reward or pressure. People who are intrinsically motivated find personal fulfillment in the activity itself, such as reading a book for enjoyment or playing a sport because it’s fun.

Extrinsic Motivation

is the drive to engage in an activity in order to achieve an external reward or avoid a negative consequence, rather than for the enjoyment of the activity itself. Examples include studying for a grade, working for a paycheck, or exercising to improve appearance, where the motivation comes from outside the person rather than from within.

Incentive Theory

that behavior is motivated by a desire to obtain external rewards or incentives. It posits that people are driven to take actions based on the positive rewards (like money, praise, or success) they expect to receive, or to avoid negative outcomes.

Instincts

typically present from birth and help an organism survive or reproduce. These behaviors are automatic and unlearned, often triggered by specific stimuli in the environment. Examples include a baby’s instinct to suckle, birds migrating for the winter, or a mother protecting her young.

Approach-Approach Conflict

occurs when a person is faced with two equally attractive options and must choose between them. Since both options are desirable, this conflict is usually easier to resolve, as the individual is motivated to pursue the most appealing choice. An example might be choosing between two exciting vacation destinations.

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

occurs when a person is drawn to a particular goal or situation, but also faces negative aspects or potential drawbacks associated with it. In this conflict, the individual is torn between the desire to pursue the goal and the fear or hesitation due to the negative consequences. An example might be wanting a high-paying job but feeling anxious about the stress it might cause.

Avoidance-avoidance Conflict

occurs when a person must choose between two unpleasant or undesirable options, each with its own negative consequences. This type of conflict can create a lot of stress and anxiety because there’s no clear "better" choice, and the individual must decide which unpleasant option to endure. An example might be choosing between a difficult task at work or dealing with a personal problem that needs attention.

Sensation Seeking Theory

suggests that some people have a higher need for novel, intense, and complex experiences to feel satisfied. Sensation seekers are motivated by the desire for excitement, adventure, and variety, often engaging in risk-taking behaviors to fulfill this need.

Ghrelin

is a hormone produced primarily in the stomach that stimulates hunger. It is often referred to as the "hunger hormone" because its levels rise before meals, signaling the brain to induce feelings of hunger. Ghrelin plays a key role in regulating appetite and energy balance, and its secretion decreases after eating.

Leptin

is a hormone produced by fat cells that helps regulate energy balance by signaling the brain to reduce appetite and increase energy expenditure when fat stores are sufficient. It plays a key role in controlling body weight, as higher levels of leptin reduce hunger, while lower levels can increase appetite and promote food-seeking behavior.

Emotion/affect

refers to a complex psychological state that involves physiological responses, behavioral reactions, and cognitive evaluations in response to a specific stimulus or situation. Emotions are typically intense, short-lived feelings such as happiness, sadness, fear, or anger, which can influence our thoughts and actions.

facial-Feedback Hypothesis

suggests that facial expressions not only reflect our emotions but can also influence them. According to this theory, when we make facial expressions (like smiling or frowning), our brain interprets those expressions and can enhance or intensify the emotions we're feeling. For example, smiling can make you feel happier, and frowning can make you feel sadder.

Broaden-and-build theory

of positive emotions, proposed by psychologist Barbara Fredrickson, suggests that experiencing positive emotions (like joy, gratitude, or love) can expand a person's thoughts and actions, leading to greater creativity, resilience, and social connections. Over time, these expanded experiences help build lasting personal resources—such as better coping skills, stronger relationships, and greater well-being—that enhance overall life satisfaction.