Summer Work

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding debate over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science views traits and behaviors as arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

natural selection

the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed to succeeding generations.

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

environment

every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us.

heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.

genes

the biochemical units of heredity.

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism.

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid; the molecule that contains the genetic instructions for development and functioning.

twin studies

research comparing identical and fraternal twins to assess the relative influence of genetics and environment on traits.

identical (monozygotic) twins

individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but they shared a prenatal environment.

adoption studies

research examining similarities between adopted children and their biological versus adoptive parents to understand genetic versus environmental influences.

epigenetics

“above” or “in addition to” (epi) genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change).

temperament

the innate personality traits, such as emotional reactivity and self-regulation, present from early life.

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system.

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord.

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex.

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissue.

adrenal gland

produces adrenaline and cortisol, involved in stress responses.

pituitary gland

the "master gland" that controls other endocrine glands and releases hormones like growth hormone and oxytocin.

cortisol

a stress hormone that increases blood sugar and helps manage stress.

melatonin

regulates sleep-wake cycles.

ghrelin

stimulates appetite.

leptin

suppresses appetite and signals fullness.

phrenology

an outdated theory that bumps on the skull reflect personality traits; historically contributed to localization of function.

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

neuroplasticity

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

lesion

tissue destruction. Brain lesions may occur naturally (from disease or trauma), during surgery, or experimentally (using electrodes to destroy brain cells).

EEG (electroencephalogram)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

MEG (magnetoencephelagraphy)

a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural

electrical activity.

CT (compound tomography) scan

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure.

PET (positron emission tomography)

a technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure.

hindbrain

consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance.

midbrain

found atop the brainstem; connects Ihe hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information.

forebrain

consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities.

brainstem

the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

medulla

the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat and breathing.

pons

the part of the brainstem that links the medulla and the thalamus.

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

reticular activating system

a network of neurons in the brainstem that plays a crucial role in regulating arousal, consciousness, and attention.

thalamus

the forebrain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

cerebellum

the hindbrain's "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

limbic system

neural system located mostly in the forebrain - below the cerebral hemispheres - that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland; associated with emotions and drives.

amygdala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

hypothalamus

a limbic system neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward.

hippocampus

a neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit (conscious) memories - of facts and events - for storage.

pituitary gland

a small pea-sized endocrine gland located at the base of the brain below the hypothalamus; releases several important hormones and controls the function of many other endocrine system glands.

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

cerebrum

largest part of the brain; divided into two hemispheres; responsible for thinking, memory, sensory processing, and voluntary movement.

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. They enable linguistic processing, muscle movements, high-order thinking, and executive functioning (such as making plans and judgments).

parietal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position.

occipital lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

temporal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; it includes the auditory areas, each of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear. They also enable language processing.

motor cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

somatosensory cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, but rather are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

prefrontal cortex

a brain area, located in the forward part of the frontal lobe, involved in complex behaviors such as planning, decision-making, and moderating social behavior.

wernicke's area

a brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression.

broca’s areas

a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movement involved in speech.