AP PSYCHOLOGY SEMESTER 1 CUMULATIVE

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

unconditioned response

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

antagonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response

resting potential

the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside a neuron's cell membrane

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

wernicke's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language

broca's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly

manifest content

according to freud, the remembered story line of a dream

latent content

according to freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

stimulants

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

kinesthesia

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

proximity

the tendency to perceive objects that are close to each other as part of the same grouping

similarity

the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group

shape constancy

the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina

size constancy

the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

observer bias

tendency of observers to see what they expect to see

observer effect

tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed

experimenter effect

tendency of the experimenter's expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

double-blind study

an experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo

representative sample

randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

procedural memory

a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits

proactive interference

old interferes with new

retroactive interference

new information interferes with old

distributed practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

misinformation effect

misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

Algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

linguistic determinism

whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

achievement test

measures how much a person has learned in a given subject or area

apititude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance

Relability

consistency of measurement

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to