AP PSYCHOLOGY SEMESTER 1 CUMULATIVE

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104 Terms

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operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

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extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

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normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

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mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

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median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

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mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

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confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

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unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

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unconditioned response

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

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classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

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conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

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conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

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generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

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discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

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positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

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negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

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primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

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fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

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variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

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fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

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variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

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latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

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dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

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axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

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myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

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action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

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synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

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reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

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agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

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antagonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response

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resting potential

the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside a neuron's cell membrane

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central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

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peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

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sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

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parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

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wernicke's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language

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broca's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly

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manifest content

according to freud, the remembered story line of a dream

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latent content

according to freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

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depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

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stimulants

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

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Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

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bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

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top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

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transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

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absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

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difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

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cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses

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rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

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cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

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kinesthesia

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

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vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

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proximity

the tendency to perceive objects that are close to each other as part of the same grouping

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similarity

the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group

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shape constancy

the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina

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size constancy

the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance

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experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

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control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

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observer bias

tendency of observers to see what they expect to see

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observer effect

tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed

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experimenter effect

tendency of the experimenter's expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study

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independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

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dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

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operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

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double-blind study

an experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo

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representative sample

randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects

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random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

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correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

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descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

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inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

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implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

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explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

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episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

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flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

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retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

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storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

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procedural memory

a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits

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proactive interference

old interferes with new

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retroactive interference

new information interferes with old

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distributed practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

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serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

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echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

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iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

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misinformation effect

misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

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functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions

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mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

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availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

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representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

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Algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

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linguistic determinism

whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

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retrograde amnesia

loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

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anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

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recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

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recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

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achievement test

measures how much a person has learned in a given subject or area

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apititude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance

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Relability

consistency of measurement

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Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to