Studied by 39 people
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
normal curve
the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
unconditioned response
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
dendrites
a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
axon
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
agonist
a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response
antagonist
a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response
resting potential
the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside a neuron's cell membrane
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
wernicke's aphasia
condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language
broca's aphasia
condition resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly
manifest content
according to freud, the remembered story line of a dream
latent content
according to freud, the underlying meaning of a dream
depressants
drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
stimulants
drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
Hallucinogens
psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
kinesthesia
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
proximity
the tendency to perceive objects that are close to each other as part of the same grouping
similarity
the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group
shape constancy
the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina
size constancy
the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance
experimental group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
control group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
observer bias
tendency of observers to see what they expect to see
observer effect
tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed
experimenter effect
tendency of the experimenter's expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study
independent variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
dependent variable
the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
operational definition
a statement of the procedures used to define research variables
double-blind study
an experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo
representative sample
randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
inferential statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
episodic memory
the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
procedural memory
a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits
proactive interference
old interferes with new
retroactive interference
new information interferes with old
distributed practice
spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
misinformation effect
misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
Algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
linguistic determinism
whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
retrograde amnesia
loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
achievement test
measures how much a person has learned in a given subject or area
apititude test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance
Relability
consistency of measurement
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Note 
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