MWH Semester 1 Midterm Test

Ad fontes

A guiding principle of Humanism in the Renaissance (starting in the 14th century), meaning 'Back to the sources.' This principle emphasizes drawing inspiration from ancient Greek and Latin texts, philosophies, history, and sciences. It led to a surge in the appreciation of classical knowledge and significantly enhanced education levels within society.

Individualism

An outcome of the Rennaisance (14th century) that celebrates the unique passions and talents of every individual. This idea promotes the belief that each person, made in God's image, possesses distinct strengths that should be cultivated. It was crucial because it encouraged personal exploration and development, contributing positively to societal progress.

Spirit of Inquiry

An aspect of Humanism in the 14th century promoting the idea that humans should actively seek to understand their world and themselves through questioning and exploration. This mindset emerged from the 'Ad fontes' movement and the study of ancient Greek and Latin philosophy, fostering ongoing discoveries that enriched society.

Secularism

emerged as a cultural and intellectual shift that emphasized worldly concerns over religious ones. This influenced Renaissance thinkers such as Petrarch(14th century) and Machiavelli (15th century), who began focusing on humanism, art, and science, they distanced themselves from the strictly religious framework of the medieval period. Overall, it contributed to the development on individualism, the decline of the church, and new art.

The School of Athens

A famous secular fresco painted by Raphael in the early 16th century located in the papal palace. It illustrates a grand assembly of renowned classical philosophers engaged in discussion such as Plato and Aristotle, symbolizing the importance of studying the past for contemporary knowledge and improvement.

Indulgences

A practice used by the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages up until the mid 16th century, where individuals could purchase indulgences to pay for their salvation, ultimately prompting Martin Luther to write the 95 Theses and leading to widespread criticism of the Church.

The 95 Theses

A document composed by Martin Luther in 1517, outlining 95 criticisms of the Catholic Church’s practices, particularly regarding indulgences. It argued for salvation through faith alone and the authority of scripture. The 95 Theses rapidly gained traction among those discontent with the Church's practices, serving as the foundation for Lutheranism and decline of the church.

Predestination

Central to Calvinism in the mid-16th century, this doctrine asserts that God has preordained who will be saved and who will be damned, independent of human actions or knowledge. This belief resonated with various groups, including lower-class individuals seeking freedom from the stringent Catholic Church rules.

Humanism

A movement that catalyzed the Renaissance in the 14th century, emphasizing human-centric thought and the pursuit of knowledge over divine or supernatural matters. It advocated for the study of humanities, including history, philosophy, and languages, significantly driving the quest for knowledge and educational reform during this period.

Queen Elizabeth I

Queen of England crowned in 1558 following Mary I’s reign. She played a pivotal role in reinstating the Church of England while maintaining religious stability between Catholics and Protestants and is notable for her strong leadership as a politique.

Peace of Westphalia

A series of treaties signed in 1648, concluding the Thirty Years' War in Europe and allowing individual territories to determine their religious allegiance. It recognized the principle of state sovereignty and the rights of rulers to choose their state’s religion. The treaties weakened the Holy Roman Emperor’s authority and decentralized the empire, granting more autonomy to its constituent states.It also marked the rise of France and Sweden as major powers and diminished Spain’s influence.

Versailles

grand palace constructed in the mid 17th century for Louis XIV and the French nobility. It epitomizes the might of absolute monarchy and served as the center of political power while Louis could control the aristocracy and maintain his absolutist regime.

Peter the Great

The Tsar of Russia who reigned from the late 17th century to early 18th century, became renowned for his efforts to modernize Russia by adopting Western technologies and practices in administration, military, and culture, including founding St. Petersburg. His reign transformed Russia into a major European power and symbolized its entry into the modern age. He significantly advanced shipbuilding and expanded trade opportunities.

Janissaries

Elite military corps of the Ottoman Empire, formed from Christian boys taken from their families and converted to Islam, educated, and trained to serve the Sultan by Muslim families. Their unwavering loyalty and military prowess were pivotal in expanding the Ottoman Empire.

Suleyman

ruler of Ottoman empire during early-mid 16th century known for expanding the Ottoman empire to its greatest size and reforming the government. He reformed the legal system, earning the title “The Lawgiver,” and established a centralized and efficient bureaucracy. He was also relatively religiously tolerant, allowing non-Muslims to practice religion but imposed jizya tax.

Shah Ismail I

founder of the Safavid Empire(Iran) in the early 16th century. He claim that he descended from a revered Sufi figure and aggressively expanded territory while enforcing Shia Islam, even executing those who resisted conversion. He established Twelver Shiism as the official religion and set the stage for the Ottoman Empire to eventually invade and conquer his empire after his death.

Twelver Shiism

The predominant Shia belief during the 16th century, which held that the twelfth Imam would reappear to lead the Muslim community. This belief was instrumental in justifying Shah Ismail's rule, reinforcing loyalty among his followers.

Akbar’s Divine Faith

A syncretic religion established by Akbar, the Mughal emperor ruling from the mid-16th to early 17th century, as an effort to unify his diverse subjects by blending elements from various faiths, fostering harmony between Muslims and Hindus.

Aurangzeb

The last significant Mughal ruler, reigning from the mid-17th century to the early 18th century, known for his orthodox Islamic policies that alienated his Hindu subjects and ultimately contributed to the empire's decline.

Printing press

Invented by Gutenberg in the mid-15th century, this revolutionary device allowed for the mass production of written texts, significantly contributing to the spread of literacy and the ideas of the Protestant Reformation, including Martin Luther’s 95 Theses.

English Reformation

Initiated by King Henry VIII in the early 16th century, this was a religious shift where England broke away from the Catholic Church, leading to the establishment of the Church of England, characterized by conflicts over religious practices.

Counter-reformation

A Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, led by figures like Pope Paul III. Efforts included the Inquisition and the Council of Trent to address abuses and reaffirm Catholic doctrines.

Council of Trent

Established during the Catholic Counter-Reformation in the mid-16th century, this council aimed to confront reformist challenges by addressing Church abuses and reinforcing doctrine, paving the way for future improvements within the Church.

Thirty Years’ War

A devastating conflict from the early to mid-17th century involving multiple European powers, primarily over control of territory and religious dominance. The war markedly altered the political landscape of Europe and culminated in the Peace of Westphalia which allowed for more religious freedom.

Trading Post Empire

Developed by the Portuguese in the early to mid-16th century, this empire sought to control trade routes by establishing posts where merchants had to pay taxes. It significantly influenced global trade patterns and European colonial expansion.

Hernan Cortes

A Spanish conquistador known for leading the expedition that resulted in the downfall of the Aztec Empire and claiming Mexico for Spain in 1521, driven by the dual goals of conquest and Christian evangelization.

Mercantilism

An economic policy implemented from the early 16th to the 18th century that emphasized the importance of governmental regulation of a nation's economy, promoting exports and limiting imports.

King Afonso

The ruler of Kongo in the early to mid-16th century, noted for his initial cooperation with Portuguese explorers but ultimately struggled against their increasing dominance and exploitation, revealing the complexities of early European colonization.

Diaspora

The forced dispersal of people from their homeland, particularly referring to the displacement of Africans during the transatlantic slave trade from the 16th to the 19th centuries, resulting in profound cultural and social impacts globally.

Matteo Ricci

An Italian Jesuit missionary active in the mid-16th century who played a crucial role in the cultural exchange between Europe and China, noted for his efforts in integrating Western science and Christianity with Chinese thought.

Daimyo

powerful feudal lords in Japan during the shogunate system (12th–19th centuries). They owned vast lands, maintained private armies of samurai, and vied for political power. The Tokugawa Shogunate centralized control by reducing their autonomy, shaping Japan’s political structure.

Joint Stock Company

A business structure that emerged in the early 17th century where shareholders can buy and sell portions of the company, allowing for the pooling of resources for large-scale ventures and lowering the risk for each investor, notably in trade and exploration.

Viceroy

A high-ranking official who governed a colony or territory on behalf of a monarch, a position that became important in the 16th century as European powers expanded overseas, playing a key role in colonial administration.

Mestizo

A term originating in the early 16th century for individuals of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry in the Americas, representing the cultural blending of different groups during and after European colonization.

Queen Nzinga

The fierce queen of Ndongo in Angola from the early to the late 17th century, recognized for her staunch resistance against Portuguese colonizers and her drive to protect her people from slavery and oppression.

Mandate of Heaven

A foundational Chinese principle from the mid-11th century that justifies the ruler's authority as approved by divine forces. It posits that a ruler's legitimacy is contingent upon their ability to govern justly.

Qianlong Emperor

The 4th emperor of the Qing Dynasty, ruling from the early to the late 18th century, whose reign marked the high point of Qing prosperity as he patronized the arts and preserved Chinese cultural traditions while integrating diverse ethnic groups into the empire which was at its largest. However ,signs of internal decline, such as corruption, inefficiency, and resistance to modernization and external trade, began to surface during his later years. These weaknesses foreshadowed the challenges China would face in the 19th century.

Encomienda

A labor system established by the Spanish crown in the early to mid-16th century that granted colonists the right to demand tribute and forced labor from Indigenous peoples under the pretext of protection and Christianization.

Potosi

A city in present-day Bolivia that became the heart of silver mining in the 16th century, providing immense wealth for the Spanish Empire and involving the exploitation of Indigenous labor under dire conditions.

Virgin of Guadalupe

A Catholic symbol originating in Mexico associated with apparitions of the Virgin Mary to Juan Diego, an indigenous convert, in the early 16th century. She embodies a fusion of Spanish and Indigenous cultures and is crucial to Mexican identity and Catholic devotion.

Middle Passage

The harrowing transatlantic journey taken by enslaved Africans to the Americas from the early 16th to the 19th century, characterized by abysmal conditions aboard slave ships, resulting in significant loss of life and a tragic chapter in history.

Hong Wu

The first emperor of the Ming dynasty in China, ruling from the mid to late 14th century, who led a rebellion that overthrew the Mongol Yuan Dynasty. As emperor, he centralized power, re-established traditional Confucian values, and implemented agricultural reforms to rebuild China’s economy after years of war. He restored Chinese rule after foreign domination, creating a strong and stable government, and laying the foundation for one of China’s most prosperous dynasties.

Shogun

The military dictator of Japan during the feudal period, beginning in the 12th century, who held supreme power over the country, often overshadowing the emperor in governing affairs.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

A foundational document of the French Revolution adopted in 1789. It established the principles of popular sovereignty and the protection of individual rights, challenging the authority of the monarchy and feudal privileges.It was heavily influenced by Enlightenment thinkers like Rousseau and Montesquieu, as well as the American Revolution. The Declaration affirmed rights such as freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and equality before the law, laying the groundwork for modern democratic ideals despite primarily APPLYING TO ONLY MEN

Copernican Universe

An astronomical model introduced by Nicolaus Copernicus in the early 16th century, proposing that the Sun, rather than the Earth, is at the center of the universe. This revolutionary idea set the stage for the Scientific Revolution.

Galileo Galilei

An Italian polymath, lived from 1564 to 1642, whose advancements in astronomy and physics supported the heliocentric model of the solar system, greatly influencing the course of the Scientific Revolution.

Isaac Newton

An influential English scientist, who lived from 1643 to 1727, known for developing the laws of motion and universal gravitation, serving as a foundational figure in physics and mathematics, and contributing significantly to the Scientific Revolution.

Maximilien Robespierre

A prominent figure in the French Revolution, lived from 1758 to 1794, known for his influential role during the Reign of Terror, where he championed revolutionary ideals while simultaneously instigating widespread violence.

Popular Sovereignty

The principle that the government’s authority is derived from the will of the people, gaining prominence during the Enlightenment by John Locke in the late 17th century and the French Revolution in the late 18th century.

Voltaire

A leading figure of the Enlightenment and a critic of institutional authority, especially the Church, who advocated for civil liberties, religious tolerance, and freedom of expression in France during the mid-late 18th century.

Committee of Public Safety

An executive governmental body formed during the French Revolution, established in the late 18th century to safeguard the Republic from external threats and civil unrest led It oversaw the Reign of Terror, during which thousands were executed as “enemies of the revolution.”

Montesquieu

A French philosopher, active during the early to mid-18th century, known for his theories on the separation of powers in government, which greatly influenced modern political thought and constitutional design.

Deism

A belief system, gaining popularity in the 17th and 18th centuries during the Enlightenment, proposing that a creator established the universe but does not intervene. It encouraged rational discourse about religion and contributed to secular thinking.

Toussaint L’Ouverture

An influential leader in the Haitian Revolution who lived in the mid to late 18th century and led the first successful revolt by enslaved people, culminating in the establishment of Haiti, the first independent black-led republic.

Estates General

The legislative assembly in France convened in 1789, consisting of representatives from the clergy, nobility, and commoners, marking the beginning of a political crisis that ultimately led to the French Revolution.

Caudillos

Strongman leaders or military figures who wielded power through authoritarian rule in Latin America during the 19th century, often contributing to political instability in the post-colonial era.

National Assembly

The assembly formed by the Third Estate during the French Revolution in 1789, representing the common people and signaling the beginning of efforts to dismantle the absolute monarchy and assert the power of the populace.

Liberalism

A political ideology that emerged during the Enlightenment in the late 18th century, focused on individual freedoms, equality, and promoting democratic governance and civil liberties, often opposing conservative institutions.

Conservatism

A political philosophy emphasizing the preservation of traditional institutions and values, becoming particularly pronounced in reaction to the French Revolution and the rise of liberal ideas in the late 18th century.

Simón Bolívar

A prominent military and political leader in the early 19th century known for spearheading the independence movements across Latin America, particularly in regions such as Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.

Congress of Vienna

A series of diplomatic meetings held in 1814-1815 among the major European powers to restore stability and order in Europe following the Napoleonic Wars, establishing a framework for maintaining a balance of power.

Nationalism

A political ideology that gained prominence in the 19th century, advocating for the interests and cultural identity of specific nations, fostering unity and a sense of collective identity, often associated with independence movements.

Otto von Bismarck

The first Chancellor of the German Empire in the mid to late 19th century, recognized for his role in the unification of Germany. Bismarck used a policy of Realpolitik—pragmatic diplomacy based on practical rather than ideological considerations—to unify Germany. He orchestrated three wars (against Denmark, Austria, and France) to strengthen Prussia's position and rally German states under its leadership.

Society of Jesus

an outcome of counter-reformation where St. Ignatius Loyola created a society of devout Catholics called Jesuits who were extremely educated and spread Christianity over the world through missionaries during the mid 16th century

Diet of Worms

an imperial assembly of the Holy Roman Empire, convened to address the teachings and writings of Martin Luther in 1521. The assembly resulted in the Edict of Worms, which declared Luther a heretic and outlaw, forbidding his writings.

French Wars of Religion

series of conflict fought between Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants) in the mid-late 16th century. The conflict ended with the Edict of Nantes (1598), granting limited religious toleration as the Huguenots now had freedom of worship and rights in France

German Wars of Religion

conflicts when the Holy Roman Empire was fractured by Lutheranism resulting in peasant rebellions. The Peace of Augsburg (1555) allowed rulers to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism for their territories but excluded other faiths.

Calvinism

Protestant theological movement founded by John Calvin in the mid-16th century during the Reformation. It emphasizes the sovereignty of God, predestination, and the importance of a disciplined, pious lifestyle. It spread rapidly across Europe, influencing regions such as Switzerland, Scotland, and the Netherlands. It fostered the development of democratic governance through its emphasis on self-governing congregations, and inspiring social and economic changes, including the so-called “Protestant work ethic” while its followers also being the Puritans who first came to the United States.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

an Italian revolutionary and nationalist leader, known for his role in the unification of Italy during the mid-late 19th century. A skilled military leader, he commanded volunteer forces known as the Red Shirts. Garibaldi played a pivotal role in the unification of Italy by leading military campaigns in southern Italy, including the conquest of Sicily and Naples during the Expedition of the Thousand (1860). His efforts helped unite southern Italy with the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, paving the way for the creation of a unified Kingdom of Italy in 1861. He is remembered as a symbol of national unity and republican ideals.