MWH Semester 1 Midterm Test

Ad fontes: One of the major values of Humanism during the Renaissance (started in 14th century). “Back to the sources” - inspiration from past into the present. Encourages the study of ancient Greek and Latin text and philosophies, history, and science. Increased amount of Greek and Latin influence on civilizations, and increased population percentage of education.

Individualism: An impact of Humanism (14th century) and studying ancient philosophy that stated that every human has their own passion and gifts that should be nurtured. We’re all created in God's image, and we have different strengths. Important because it allowed people to branch out and pursue their passions, which improved society.

Spirit of Inquiry: An impact of Humanism (14th century) that stated that humans should seek to understand and question all parts of the world and themselves. Resulted from Ad fontes and studying ancient Greek and Latin philosophy. Important because it allowed humans to keep exploring and discovering more about their surroundings and themselves, which improved society and the world.

Secularism: An impact of Humanism (14th centuries) that stated that the purpose of life is not purely to achieve religious enlightenment but instead understand the world and ourselves. Important because it turned people away from just focusing on pleasing god, and it made people focus on improving their societies and learning.

The School of Athens: A painting created by Raphael in the early 16th century that is located in the vatican. Depicts a great meeting of famous classical thinkers who are engaged in discussion. Important because it urges people to study the past, even if the philosophers are unholy, because their knowledge is useful for improving the world.

Indulgences: In the Middle Ages up until Martin Luther, the Catholic Church gave out Indulgences to raise money to pay for St. Peter’s. These Indulgences were basically a way to pay to get into heaven. They are important because they sparked Martin Luther to write the 95 theses, and they shined a bad light on the Pope and the Catholic Church, causing people to start converting to protestant religions.

The 95 Theses - 95 thoughts that were of what the church did wrong - created by Martin Luther in 1517. Preached the ideas of Sola fides (faith is the only thing you need to get into Heaven) and the Sola Scriptura (if something isn’t in the bible then it’s not true, there are only 2 sacraments in Jesus’s life), and that everyone is able to read and interpret scripture. Important because it struck well with a lot of the Catholic population who didn’t like paying taxes to the Church, and it spread Luther’s ideas rapidly. It also acted as the outline for Lutheranism.

Predestination: One of the key points of Calvinism (mid-16th century) is that God determines who is damned (goes to hell) and who isn’t (who goes to heaven) before we are born. We have no way of knowing or altering his decision. Important because it struck well with Catholic commoners who didn’t want to pay taxes to get into heaven and with royalty who wanted an excuse to do what they wanted without fear of God's wrath. Caused many monarchs to switch to Calvinism.

Humanism: A movement that started the Renaissance (14th century) that was a system of thought focusing on humans rather than divine or supernatural matters. Encouraged education of the humanities (history, english, philosophy, etc.). Important because it increased desire for education and sparked the start of the Renaissance.

Queen Elizabeth I- Crowned Queen of England after Mary died in 1558 (mid 16th century). Reintroduces the Church of England and Anglicanism after Mary had established Catholic principles. Never married due to fear of losing power to husband. Important because she ended the conflicts between Catholics and Protestants by creating more religious uniformity. 

Peace of Westphalia: Signed in 1648 and marked the end of the Thirty Years War between Protestant powers and Catholic Powers. Important because it allows individual territories to determine their own religions. It also limits the power of the Holy Roman Emperor and marks the end of medieval states.

French Wars of Religion: Happened from mid-16th century to late-16th century between Catholic population and protestant population. Each war resulted in a death of a leadership but no radical change was made. Was caused by young Francis the second becoming King, and it was an opportunity for Calvinists to get more power. Ends with Henry the 4th issuing the Edict of Nantes, which allowed Huguenots to openly practice religion, go to university, and hold government positions. Important because it resulted in an increase of protestant rights in France and it caused a split of France into a Catholic side and a Protestant side.

Versailles: Created by Louis the 14th in mid-17th century and became the royal residence in 1682. Included 700 rooms, 1,200 fireplaces, and 2,014 acres of land. Important because it showed the power of absolute monarchs since Louis was allowed to do and construct whatever he wanted. Also important because it allowed Louis to keep close eyes on all of the nobles, who were required to live in Versailles. Also created a want of power from Louis which increased Louis’s authority and power as the absolute monarch of France.

Peter the Great: Reigned from late-17th century to early-18th century. Led Grand Embassy to observe and learn from Western Europe. Wanted to adopt Western ideas and practices. Important because he modernized Russia by utilizing Western inventions such as ship building, encouraged his family to marry into other countries and establish ties, and gained a better position for trade after taking Latvia and Estonias’ warm water port. 

Janissaries: Occurred during the Ottoman Empire (late 13th century to early 20th century) and were captured or Christian boys who were offered to the Sultan. These boys were raised as Muslims and grew up to be warriors who were loyal to the Sultan. They were fierce warriors. After they retired, they usually held strong political positions. Important because they provided the Ottomans with a strong military, which they used to expand their borders and fight with Shia Muslims.

Suleyman: Ottoman Sultan who ruled from the early 16th century to the mid 16th century. He was known as the Lawgiver and created the law code called Kunan, which used the Quran to make laws. He utilized the jizya tax and created the Mosque of Suleyman. Important because he was the Sultan of the peak of the Ottoman Empire.

Shah Ismail I: Founder of the Safavid Empire which was founded in the early 16th century. He claimed that he was a descendant of Safi al-Din, a famous sufi and Islamic Mystic. He seized territory in Iraq and Iran and declared himself Shah. He forced his subjects to convert to Shia Islam, and if they didn’t, they were executed. Important because he founded the Safavid Empire and was the ruler.

Twelver Shiism: Was the core belief of the Shia Muslims during the 16th century. They believed that the twelfth Imam would appear one day. The qizilbash believed that Ismail was the Mahdi and that he would give them immortality in the field of battle. This is important because it was the way that Ismail legitimized his rule and was the reason that his subjects were so loyal to him, aiding him in the field of battle without question.

Akbar’s Divine Faith: Akbar ruled as the leader of the Mughals from the mid 16th century to the early 17th century. He created his new religion which combined different ideals from different religions, and it declared that the figurehead is the ruler of the Mughals. It also said that there is one god who is mentioned in many different religions. Important because it created a middle ground for Muslims and Hindus who were having conflict in India under the Mughal rule.

Aurangzeb: Was the last effective Mughal leader who ruled from mid-17th century to the early 18th century. He was a hardcore Muslim who destroyed many Hindu temples which enraged his subjects. Important because he caused the decline of the empire by selling away land to European powers such as Britain. 

Printing press- The printing press was a new invention that was created by Gutenberg during the mid 15th-century in Europe that allowed the printing of texts to be much easier and quicker. The printing press was most notably used to create the Gutenberg Bible which were printed in languages spoken by the common people rather than solely in Latin as most previous texts had been. The printing press allowed the general public to gain access to information themselves rather than seeking the information through the church. This gave the church less power and the people more freedom and knowledge. This largely impacted the Protestant Reformation as copies of Martin Luther’s 95 Theses were printed using a printing press, which allowed for mass production of his work for everyone to read, ultimately boosting the spread of Lutheranism and enlightening those to the corruption of the Catholic church.

English reformation- The English reformation was started by King Henry VIII of England during his reign during the early 16th century. The English Reformation saw King Henry VIII sever ties with the Catholic Church after the pope refused to annul his marriage with Anne Boleyn. The pope excommunicated Henry who then started the English Church and Anglicanism, a form of Protestantism. Although much of the Anglican practices modeled that of the Catholics, it was still highly controversial and sparked the undermining of the Church. The English reformation was historically significant as it started to introduce politics to the reformation as the King of one of the most powerful European nations was now openly against the Catholic Church. 

English Civil War

Counter-reformation - Following the rise of the protestant reformation, Pope Paul III and Pope Paul IV searched to combat the reformation and bring back the popularity of Catholicism in Europe(16th century). Some of their efforts consisted of the Inquisition, which cracked down on non-Catholics, the Council of Trent, which consisted of multiple meetings to discuss the future of Catholicism, and the Society of Jesus, movements to help right some of the previous wrongs of the Catholic church.

Council of trent- The council of Trent was created shortly after the release of the 95 Theses in 1517 as part of the Catholic Church’s “counter-reformation” during the mid 16th century. The Council of Trent consisted of important church individuals such as bishops, cardinals, and other officials. They had meetings in order to address doctrinal issues. They acknowledged the abuses of the Church in the past years and took steps to reform it. They did this by having more strict standards of morality for the church authorities and also establishing more seminaries and schools in order to better educate and prepare priests in the future. This ultimately improved the Catholic Church’s reputation and bettered the Church for the future as it helped the church move past the corruption of the past

Thirty years war - The thirty years war was a result of France, Sweden, Denmark, and the Holy Roman empire wanting control over parts of the Baltic sea and central Europe (early-mid 17th century). Millions of people died during this war, with violence lasting up until the Peace of Westphalia, which allowed for rulers to dictate their country’s religion without outside interference. As a result of this war, the Holy Roman Empire ceases to exist, Spain loses land, and Germany is divided into pieces. 

Versailles- the palace of Louis XIV that was built in the mid 17th century that displayed the ideas of an absolute monarchy. It was extravagant and had lots of precious metals and designs used to show France’s wealth. It also was the housing of the French aristocracy so that Louis XIV could control them and run the country how he wanted.

Trading Post Empire: 

First built by Portuguese mariners in the early-mid 16th century to control trade by forcing merchants to pay taxes at trading sites. A “Safe conduct pass” had to be paid to the Portuguese, and if they could not pay it, the Portuguese seized all of their goods. India was the key target for these ports because of its optimal location for trade. The Trading Post Empire enabled Europeans to gain significant control over global trade, leading to the spread of European colonial influence across the world.

Hernan Cortes

A Spanish explorer and military leader who led the Spanish to conquer the Aztec Empire, defeating its ruler Montezuma II in 1521 and claiming the region for Spain. He was driven by Spain’s ambitions of conquest and spreading Christianity. His actions led to the expansion of the Spanish Empire in the Americas and marked the beginning of the collapse of indigenous civilizations in the Americas.

Mercantilism

Mercantilism was an economic theory and practice from the early 16th century to the 18th century, focusing on trade to increase national power (a nation’s wealth was best gained from increasing exports and limiting imports). Mercantilism shaped and encouraged European colonial expansion, leading to the establishment of multiple colonies and European control of global trade. It also laid the groundwork for the modern capitalist economy.

King Afonso

King Afonso, who ruled from the early 16th century to the mid 16th century, was notable for his interactions with the Portuguese during early European contact with Africa. He was a king of Kongo who adopted European ways, including Christianity. He originally welcomed the Portuguese for their military support, but eventually, Portuguese control overpowered his rule, making him more of a figurehead instead of a ruler by the end of his rule. His actions highlighted the possibilities and consequences of European colonization in Africa, which eventually leads to the slave trade.

Diaspora

Diaspora refers to the dispersion of scattering people away from their homeland. This mainly occurs between the 16th and the 19th centuries in the African slave trade. In this case, the diaspora happens because of European influence in Africa, forcefully dispersing Africans away from their homeland as slaves. Diasporas have significantly shaped global culture, politics, and economics. They are also part of the reason for the diverse cultures of today.

Matteo Ricci

Matteo Ricci, born in the mid 16th century, was an Italian Jesuit priest and one of the most significant missionaries to China in the late Ming dynasty. He was famous for his efforts of introducing Christianity to China, as well as integrating it with Confucian philosophy. He mastered the Chinese language, adopted Chinese customs, and was well respected in his scientific knowledge, especially in astronomy and mathematics. He played a key role in intellectual exchange between China and the West.

Daimyo 

Daimyo were powerful feudal lords in Japan who served under shogun and ruled over samurai and peasants from the 12th to 19th centuries. The daimyo maintained control over large amounts of land and were also powerful military leaders for the shogunate.

Joint Stock Company

A Joint Stock Company is a business entity where shares of the company’s stock can be bought and sold by shareholders, and each shareholder owns a portion of the company. This mainly became prominent in the early 17th century. At the time, this was crucial for expanding European entities such as the Dutch and English as this allowed them to collect more funding and allowed them to spread the high risk of these ventures to all the shareholders, improving European expansion. These companies also allowed the common people to profit off these lucrative expeditions.

Viceroy

A viceroy was a royal official who runs a country, colony, or province on behalf of a king or monarch. The position of viceroy became prominent in the early - mid 16th century once Europe came into contact with the Americas. They were appointed to govern distant territories, allowing monarchs to maintain control over empires overseas. Viceroys played a crucial role in the administration and development of colonial territories, including India, the Americans, and parts of Africa.

Mestizo

A Mestizo was a person of mixed European and Indigenous American descent. This term appeared in the early 16th century when Spanish colonization expanded to the Americas and intermarriage between European settlers and Indigenous peoples became common. This was mainly due to the need for labor in those societies and the desire to gain control over indigenous populations. Mestizos played a vital role in shaping the social landscape in the early Americas.

Queen Nzinga

Queen Nzinga, who ruled from the early 17th century to the late 17th century, was the queen of Ndongo (Angola), known for her strong resistance against Portuguese colonization and her efforts to defend her people from slavery. For 40 years, she fought against Portuguese colonizers, but her death caused Ndongo to fall to the Portuguese. She is celebrated as a symbol of resistance in African history, and inspired later movements against oppression in Africa.

Mandate of Heaven

The Mandate of Heaven was a Chinese philosophical concept that legitimizes the rule of an emperor based on their ability to govern effectively. It states that a ruler should rule because of divine approval, and if they were to lose their position in power, it was because the heavens no longer approved of their reign. This concept emerged in the mid 11th century in China, shaping Chinese political culture for centuries, as well as influencing dynastic change and the legitimacy of rulers.

Qianlong Emperor

The Qianlong Emperor was the sixth emperor of the Qing Dynasty in China, ruling from the early 18th century to late 18th century. His reign marked the height of the Qing dynasty. At four separate points during his rule, he paused tax collection because of the sheer amount of wealth he had accumulated. However, his later years were marked by corruption and laziness, foreshadowing the fall of the Qing dynasty in the 19th century. However, he is still known as the emperor during the peak of the Qing dynasty.

Encomienda

The Encomienda system was a labor system instituted by the Spanish crown during the colonization of the Americas in the early-mid 16th century. It granted Spanish colonists the right to demand tribute and forced labor from Indigenous peoples in exchange for supposed protection and Christianization. It played a crucial role in the Spanish colonial economy, leading to the exploitation and significant decline of Indigenous populations because of harsh labor conditions in the Americas.

Potosi

Potosi is a city in modern day Bolivia known for its vast silver mining operations that were central to the Spanish Empire during the colonial period, starting from the mid 16th century. The Spanish crown sought to exploit the vast mineral wealth of Potosi to fund its empire, using Indigenous labor in harsh conditions. It played a crucial role in the economic history of colonial Latin America, fueling the Spanish economy and its global trade networks.

Virgin of Guadalupe

The Virgin of Guadalupe is a significant religious icon in Mexico, representing the country’s Catholic faith. She is associated with the apparitions of the Virgin Mary to Juan Diego(priest) in the early 16th century. She is depicted as a dark-skinned woman, symbolizing her connection to both Spanish and Indigenous cultures, central to Mexican identity. She played a crucial role in shaping the culture and religion of Mexico, specifically the introduction of Christianity in Mexico.

Middle Passage

The Middle Passage refers to the transatlantic journey that enslaved Africans were forced to endure while being transported to the Americas. This was the second leg of the triangular trade route that was part of the Atlantic Slave Trade. It consisted of overcrowded and inhumane conditions aboard slave ships. This was most prevalent from the early 16th century to the 19th century. Millions of Africans were transported through these ships, and hundreds of thousands died on them. The Middle Passage is a critical chapter in the Atlantic slave trade, representing the inhumanity of slavery and the diasporas of Africa.

Hong Wu

The Hong Wu Emperor, who ruled from the mid to late 14th century, was the first emperor of the Ming dynasty in China. He rose to power after being born into a poor peasant family and eventually captured the Yuan capital of Beijing. He was righteous in his purging of corrupt officials and implemented agricultural regret to rebuild China’s economy. Thousands of officials were executed on suspicion of conspiracy.

Shogun:

military leader and de facto ruler of Japan who during the feudal period, held significant power, often overshadowing the emperor in political affairs and military command.

Declaration of the Rights of ManWho/What?: A fundamental document of the French Revolution that outlines individual rights and the rights of man.When?: Adopted in 1789.Historical Significance: Established the framework for modern human rights and inspired future democratic movements.

Copernican UniverseWho/What?: The astronomical model proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus that placed the Sun at the center of the universe, rather than the Earth.When?: Introduced in the early 16th century.Historical Significance: Initiated the Scientific Revolution by challenging traditional views and leading to further discoveries in astronomy.

Galileo GalileiWho/What?: An Italian astronomer, physicist, and mathematician known for his contributions to modern science and observational astronomy.When?: Lived from 1564 to 1642.Historical Significance: Played a key role in the Scientific Revolution, advocating for the heliocentric model of the universe and making significant astronomical observations.

The CitizenWho/What?: A term often referenced during the French Revolution to denote a person participating in a republic and advocating for citizen rights and equality.When?: Particularly relevant during the late 18th century.Historical Significance: Emphasized the shift towards democratic rights and the idea of citizenship over aristocratic privilege.

Isaac NewtonWho/What?: An English mathematician, physicist, and astronomer who is one of the most influential scientists of all time.When?: Lived from 1643 to 1727.Historical Significance: Formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics and contributing to the Scientific Revolution.

Maximilien RobespierreWho/What?: A French lawyer and politician who became one of the best-known figures of the French Revolution.When?: Lived from 1758 to 1794.Historical Significance: Key leader during the Reign of Terror, promoting revolutionary ideals but also instigating widespread violence.

Popular SovereigntyWho/What?: A doctrine that asserts that the authority of the government is created and sustained by the consent of its people.When?: Gained prominence during the Enlightenment and the French Revolution in the late 18th century.Historical Significance: Became a foundational principle of modern democracies, emphasizing that political power resides with the people.

VoltaireWho/What?: A French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher famous for his wit and advocacy of civil liberties.When?: Lived from 1694 to 1778.Historical Significance: Criticized the Church and state power, advocating for freedom of speech and religious tolerance, influencing revolutionary thought.

Committee of Public SafetyWho/What?: A parliamentary body during the French Revolution responsible for protecting the republic from foreign invasion and internal rebellion.When?: Established in 1793.Historical Significance: Played a crucial role in the Reign of Terror, highlighting the tension between security and liberty.

MontesquieuWho/What?: A French political philosopher known for his ideas on the separation of powers.When?: Lived from 1689 to 1755.Historical Significance: His ideas influenced the development of modern democratic governments and constitutions.

DeismWho/What?: A philosophical belief that posits the existence of a creator who does not intervene in the universe.When?: Gained traction in the 17th and 18th centuries during the Age of Enlightenment.Historical Significance: Encouraged rational thought about religion, impacting modern secularism and concepts of faith.

Toussaint L’Ouverture: A former enslaved person who became a leader of the Haitian Revolution who lived mid-late 18th century. He Led the first successful slave revolt, resulting in the establishment of Haiti as the first independent black-led republic.

Estates GeneralWho/What?: A legislative assembly in France made up of representatives from the three estates: clergy, nobility, and commoners.When?: Convened in 1789, leading to the French Revolution.Historical Significance: Its assembling marked the beginning of the political crisis in France that overthrew the monarchy and established a republic.

CaudillosWho/What?: Military leaders or strongmen who ruled in Latin America, often with authoritarian means.When?: Prominent in the 19th century after the Spanish-American wars of independence.Historical Significance: Their rule often resulted in political instability and influenced the structure of modern Latin American nations.

National AssemblyWho/What?: The representative assembly formed by the Third Estate during the French Revolution.When?: Established in 1789.Historical Significance: Proclaimed the end of absolute monarchy in France, asserting the people's will through legislative power and marking the onset of a new political era.

Liberalism

A political ideology centered around individual rights, equality, and a focus on liberty; advocates for political change and reform, stressing democratic governance and civil liberties that gained prominence during the Enlightenment in the late18th century.

Conservatism

A political ideology preferring traditional institutions and practices, emphasizing stability, order, and the maintenance of “tradition” during the late 18th, particularly in response to the French Revolution and the rise of liberalism.

Simón Bolívar

A Venezuelan military and political leader known for his role in the independence movements across Latin America, particularly in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia during the early 19th century

Congress of Vienna

A conference held by major European powers to reorganize and reshape Europe after the Napoleonic Wars that convened from 1814 to 1815. The Congress sought to maintain a balance of power in Europe, leading to nearly a century of relative peace and establishing a framework for international diplomacy that also limited French power

Nationalism

A political ideology advocating for the interests and culture of a particular nation, emphasizing national unity and self-determination that gained momentum in the 19th century, particularly during the unification movements in Italy and Germany.

Otto von Bismarck

A Prussian statesman and the first Chancellor of the German Empire, known for his role in unifying Germany through diplomatic and military means. His policies and realpolitik led to the unification of Germany, significantly changing European power dynamics during the mid-late 19th centur

Giuseppe Garibaldi

An Italian general, nationalist, and key figure in the unification of Italy, known for his military campaigns and inspiring nationalist movements across Europe and promoting democratic ideals during mid-late 19th century.