Chapter 13/14 Protestant Reformation/Age of Exploration

These flashcards cover key vocabulary and concepts from the Reformation period, including influential figures, movements, and events.

Cardinal Wolsey (c. 1473–1530, England)

• Chief minister to Henry VIII and Archbishop of York.

• Controlled English government and foreign policy during the early reign.

• Failed to secure papal annulment for Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon.

• His fall marked the decline of papal influence in England.

Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556, England)

• Archbishop of Canterbury and key architect of the English Reformation.

• Supported Henry VIII’s divorce and later Protestant reforms.

• Helped shape doctrine and worship in England.

• Played a central role under Edward VI.

Act of Supremacy (1534, England)

• Declared the English monarch head of the Church of England.

• Ended papal authority in England.

• Required loyalty oaths from clergy and officials.

• Made religious obedience a political obligation.

Thomas Cromwell (c. 1485–1540, England)

• Chief minister to Henry VIII after Wolsey.

• Engineered legal break with Rome through Parliament.

• Oversaw the dissolution of monasteries.

• Expanded royal power through bureaucratic reform.

Edward VI (1537–1553, England)

• Son of Henry VIII.

• Ruled during England’s most Protestant phase.

• Supported reforms like clerical marriage and communion in English.

• His early death destabilized English religion.

Mary Tudor (1516–1558, England)

• Daughter of Catherine of Aragon.

• Restored Catholicism and papal authority.

• Persecuted Protestants, earning the nickname “Bloody Mary.”

• Her reign deepened religious divisions.

Philip II (1527–1598, Spain)

• King of Spain and husband of Mary Tudor.

• Strong defender of Catholicism.

• Central figure in the Counter-Reformation.

• His policies provoked rebellion in the Netherlands.

John Calvin (1509–1564, France/Geneva)

• French theologian and second-generation reformer.

• Systematized Protestant theology more thoroughly than Luther.

• Emphasized discipline, order, and moral reform.

• His ideas spread widely through Europe.

Predestination

• Doctrine that God preordains salvation.

• Central to Calvinist theology.

• Emphasized God’s absolute sovereignty.

• Created anxiety but also moral discipline.

The Elect

• Those predestined for salvation.

• Believed to show signs through disciplined, moral lives.

• Reinforced social order and obedience.

• Encouraged self-surveillance and community enforcement.

Geneva

• Calvin’s base of operations.

• Functioned as a Protestant theocracy.

• Became a training center for reformers.

• Model for Reformed communities.

The Consistory

• Church court in Geneva.

• Enforced moral behavior and religious discipline.

• Regulated daily life, including dress and conduct.

• Demonstrates fusion of church and state.

John Knox (c. 1514–1572, Scotland)

• Scottish reformer influenced by Calvin.

• Founded Presbyterianism.

• Opposed Catholic monarchy and bishops.

• Shaped Scotland’s religious identity.

Teresa of Ávila (1515–1582, Spain)

• Spanish mystic and Carmelite nun.

• Advocated spiritual renewal within Catholicism.

• Emphasized inner devotion and discipline.

• Symbol of Catholic reform without schism.

The Jesuits (Society of Jesus, founded 1540)

• Catholic religious order.

• Focused on education, missionary work, and discipline.

• Played major role in Counter-Reformation.

• Loyal directly to the pope.

Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556, Spain)

• Founder of the Jesuits.

• Former soldier turned religious leader.

• Emphasized obedience and spiritual training.

• Created Spiritual Exercises.

Francis Xavier (1506–1552)

• Jesuit missionary.

• Traveled to India, Southeast Asia, and Japan.

• Spread Catholicism globally.

• Represented global dimension of reform.

Matteo Ricci (1552–1610, Italy/China)

• Jesuit missionary to China.

• Used cultural accommodation.

• Introduced Western science to Chinese elites.

• Illustrates Jesuit adaptability.

Council of Trent (1545–1563)

• Catholic response to the Reformation.

• Reaffirmed doctrine while correcting abuses.

• Clarified Catholic theology.

• Strengthened discipline and education.

Huguenots

• French Calvinists.

• Minority but politically significant.

• Faced persecution.

• Central to French religious wars.

Henry II (1519–1559, France)

• King of France.

• Persecuted Protestants.

• Continued Valois rivalry with Habsburgs.

• His death destabilized France.

Catherine de Medici (1519–1589, France)

• Queen mother and regent.

• Attempted religious compromise.

• Prioritized political stability.

• Associated with violence and intrigue.

Guise Family

• Powerful Catholic noble family.

• Leaders of Catholic League.

• Opposed Protestant toleration.

• Intensified French religious conflict.

Politiques

• Moderate Catholics and Protestants.

• Valued political stability over religious purity.

• Supported compromise solutions.

• Helped end religious wars.

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572, France)

• Mass killing of Huguenots in Paris.

• Spread to provinces.

• Marked collapse of tolerance.

• Shocked Europe.

War of the Three Henries (1587–1589)

• Final phase of French Wars of Religion.

• Conflict among three rival Henries.

• Ended Valois dynasty.

• Led to Bourbon rule.

Henry IV (Navarre) (1553–1610, France)

• Protestant heir to French throne.

• Converted to Catholicism for unity.

• Issued Edict of Nantes.

• Restored stability.

Escorial (Spain, completed 1584)

• Palace-monastery of Philip II.

• Symbol of Catholic monarchy.

• Center of Spanish administration.

• Represents Spanish piety and power.

Battle of Lepanto (1571)

• Naval battle against Ottomans.

• Major Christian victory.

• Boosted Catholic morale.

• Limited Ottoman naval power.

William the Silent (1533–1584, Netherlands)

• Leader of Dutch revolt.

• Advocated religious toleration.

• Opposed Spanish rule.

• Father of Dutch independence.

Sea Beggars

• Dutch rebel privateers.

• Harassed Spanish forces.

• Helped ignite revolt.

• Symbol of resistance.

Union of Arras / Union of Utrecht (1579)

• Arras: Catholic southern provinces.

• Utrecht: Protestant northern provinces.

• Formalized split of Netherlands.

• Foundation of Dutch Republic.

Anne Boleyn (c. 1501–1536, England)

• Second wife of Henry VIII.

• Catalyst for English break with Rome.

• Executed for treason.

• Her marriage reshaped England.

Elizabeth I (1533–1603, England)

• Daughter of Anne Boleyn.

• Established religious compromise.

• Balanced Protestantism and stability.

• One of England’s strongest monarchs.

Book of Common Prayer (1549)

• Standardized English worship.

• Written in English.

• Central to Anglican identity.

• Controversial but enduring.

Puritans

• English Calvinists.

• Wanted further reform.

• Opposed ceremonies.

• Influenced later conflicts.

Mary, Queen of Scots (1542–1587)

• Catholic claimant to English throne.

• Seen as threat to Elizabeth.

• Executed for treason.

• Symbol of religious rivalry.

Francis Drake (c. 1540–1596)

• English naval commander.

• Privateer against Spain.

• Circumnavigated globe.

• Helped defeat Armada.

The Armada (1588)

• Spanish fleet sent to invade England.

• Defeated by English navy and weather.

• Marked decline of Spanish dominance.

• Boosted English nationalism.

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

• Legalized Lutheranism.

• “Cuius regio, eius religio.”

• Excluded Calvinists.

• Temporary peace.

Black Legend

• Anti-Spanish propaganda.

• Portrayed Spain as cruel.

• Spread by rivals.

• Shaped historical memory.

Servetus (1511–1553)

• Anti-Trinitarian thinker.

• Executed in Geneva.

• Shows limits of tolerance.

• Controversial legacy.

Rabelais (c. 1494–1553)

• French humanist writer.

• Used satire to critique society.

• Blended humor and humanism.

• Protected by elites.

Tyndale (c. 1494–1536)

• English Bible translator.

• Executed for heresy.

• Influenced English language.

• Foundation of later Bibles.

Printing Press

• Invented mid-1400s.

• Spread ideas rapidly.

• Reduced Church control.

• Essential to Reformation.

Edict of Nantes (1598, France)

• Granted toleration to Huguenots.

• Ended religious wars.

• Political compromise.

• Revoked later.

Concordat of Bologna (1516)

• Agreement between pope and France.

• King controlled church appointments.

• Strengthened monarchy.

• Limited papal influence.

Juan Luis Vives (1493–1540)

• Spanish humanist.

• Advocated education and social reform.

• Influenced Christian humanism.

• Emphasized morality.

Ursulines

• Catholic teaching order.

• Educated girls.

• Supported reform goals.

• Expanded female education.

Roman Inquisition

• Church court to enforce orthodoxy.

• Targeted heresy.

• Strengthened discipline.

• Part of Counter-Reformation.

Index of Forbidden Books

• List of banned texts.

• Controlled reading.

• Suppressed heresy.

• Used censorship.

Spanish Inquisition

• State-controlled religious court.

• Targeted converts.

• Enforced Catholic unity.

• Symbol of repression.

Religious Pluralism

• Coexistence of multiple religions.

• Gradually accepted.

• Emerged from exhaustion.

• Foundation of modern tolerance.

Pompey (the dog)

• Owned by Henry VIII.

• Shows human side of monarchy.

• Often used as trivia.

• Reminder that history includes personal details.

Diet of Worms (1521, Worms, Holy Roman Empire)

• Imperial assembly called by Emperor Charles V to resolve the controversy surrounding Martin Luther.

• Luther was asked to recant his writings; he refused, insisting Scripture and conscience outweighed Church authority.

• Resulted in Luther being declared an outlaw, but he was protected by German princes, allowing Lutheranism to survive.

• Demonstrates how political protection, not just theology, enabled the Reformation to spread.

Christian Humanism (late 1400s–early 1500s, Western Europe)

• Intellectual movement that used humanist scholarship (Greek, Latin, philology) to reform Christianity.

• Emphasized moral improvement, education, and personal devotion rather than external rituals.

• Criticized Church corruption but did not initially seek to split from Rome.

• Created the intellectual climate that made Luther’s arguments understandable and persuasive.

Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536, Netherlands)

• Most influential Christian humanist of the early 16th century.

• Believed true Christianity was about inner morality, humility, and education.

• Criticized Church abuses while rejecting Protestant extremism and violence.

• His works spread rapidly due to the printing press, shaping educated opinion across Europe.

Thomas More (1478–1535, England)

• English humanist, lawyer, and close advisor to Henry VIII.

• Believed in reform but remained loyal to Catholic doctrine and papal authority.

• Refused to recognize Henry VIII as head of the Church of England.

• Executed for treason, becoming a symbol of conscience and religious conviction.

In Praise of Folly (1509, Erasmus)

• Satirical work mocking superstition, clerical corruption, and empty rituals.

• Used humor to make criticism accessible and non-confrontational.

• Hugely popular across Europe, especially among educated elites.

• Illustrates how criticism of the Church existed before Luther.

Utopia (1516, Thomas More)

• Fictional depiction of an ideal society governed by reason and communal values.

• Criticized greed, inequality, and corruption in European society.

• Not a blueprint for reform, but a moral critique of contemporary politics.

• Reflects Renaissance humanist ideals rather than Protestant theology.

Henry VIII (1491–1547, England)

• King of England whose break with Rome was driven by dynastic concerns, not theology.

• Wanted annulment of marriage to Catherine of Aragon, which the pope refused.

• Used Parliament and royal authority to sever ties with the papacy.

• Established the Church of England with himself as supreme head.

Pluralism

• Practice of clergy holding multiple church offices simultaneously.

• Led to neglect of local pastoral duties.

• Symbolized Church corruption and lack of spiritual leadership.

• Frequently criticized by humanists and reformers alike.

Modern Devotion (14th–15th centuries, Low Countries/Germany)

• Religious movement emphasizing simplicity, humility, and personal spirituality.

• Encouraged meditation, moral discipline, and private prayer.

• Rejected elaborate rituals and Church excess.

• Strong influence on Erasmus and early reform thinking.

Thomas à Kempis (c. 1380–1471, Germany/Netherlands)

• Member of the Modern Devotion movement.

• Focused on inner spiritual life rather than public ceremony.

• Advocated humility, obedience and imitation of Christ.

• His ideas shaped late medieval and early modern spirituality.

The Imitation of Christ (c. 1427)

• Devotional text stressing inward faith and humility.

• Encouraged withdrawal from worldly ambition.

• Became one of the most widely read Christian texts in Europe.

• Shows continuity between medieval piety and Reformation spirituality.

Martin Luther (1483–1546, Wittenberg, Germany)

• Augustinian monk and professor of theology.

• Deeply troubled by the idea of earning salvation through works.

• Developed a theology centered on faith, Scripture, and grace.

• His actions unintentionally launched a permanent religious division.

Sacrament

• Catholic Church recognized seven sacraments as channels of divine grace.

• Luther accepted only baptism and communion as biblically supported.

• Rejected sacramental system as a means of earning salvation.

• Undermined Church authority over spiritual life.

Justification by Faith

• Belief that salvation comes through faith alone, not good works.

• Luther developed this idea through study of Paul’s letters.

• Directly contradicted Catholic teaching on merit and sacraments.

• Became the theological foundation of Protestantism.

Supremacy of the Bible

• Scripture (sola scriptura) as the sole source of religious authority.

• Rejected pope, councils, and tradition as final authorities.

• Encouraged translation of the Bible into vernacular languages.

• Shifted religious power toward individuals and local communities.

St. Peter’s Basilica (construction began 1506, Rome)

• Massive rebuilding project symbolizing papal power and prestige.

• Extremely expensive, requiring new sources of funding.

• Indulgence sales were promoted to finance construction.

• Became a lightning rod for criticism of Church excess.

Johann Tetzel (c. 1465–1519, Germany)

• Dominican friar authorized to sell indulgences.

• Used dramatic language to appeal to fear of purgatory.

• His actions directly provoked Luther’s response.

• Became a symbol of Church exploitation.

95 Theses (1517, Wittenberg)

• Luther’s written objections to indulgence practices.

• Intended as an academic debate, not rebellion.

• Quickly spread across Europe through printing.

• Marked the public beginning of the Reformation.

Leo X (1475–1521, Pope)

• Medici pope focused on art, culture, and construction.

• Initially underestimated Luther’s challenge.

• Excommunicated Luther after failed reconciliation.

• Represented Renaissance papacy’s priorities and weaknesses.

The Leipzig Debate (1519)

• Public debate between Luther and Catholic theologians.

• Luther denied papal infallibility and authority.

• Forced Luther to clarify his break with Church tradition.

• Pushed the conflict beyond reform into schism.

Charles V (1500–1558)

• Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain.

• Sought religious unity to preserve imperial stability.

• Faced threats from Protestant princes and Ottoman expansion.

• Ultimately accepted compromise with Protestants.

Woodcut

• Cheap printed images using carved wood blocks.

• Spread religious ideas visually to the illiterate.

• Used heavily by Protestants for propaganda.

• Demonstrates how technology fueled reform.

The Peasants’ War (1524–1525, Germany)

• Large-scale peasant revolt inspired partly by Reformation rhetoric.

• Demanded economic and social reforms.

• Luther condemned the violence and sided with authorities.

• Shows limits of Reformation support for social revolution.

Katherina von Bora (1499–1552, Germany)

• Former nun who escaped her convent.

• Married Martin Luther.

• Modeled Protestant marriage and family life.

• Helped normalize clerical marriage.

Francis I (1494–1547, France)

• King of France and rival of Charles V.

• Politically tolerated Protestants at times.

• Supported humanism and Renaissance culture.

• Demonstrates political pragmatism over religious consistency.

Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520–1566, Ottoman Empire)

• Most powerful Ottoman sultan.

• Expanded empire into Europe.

• Pressured Christian states militarily.

• Indirectly helped Protestants by distracting Charles V.

Battle of Mohács (1526)

• Ottoman victory over Hungary.
• Destroyed Hungarian independence.
• Opened Central Europe to Ottoman influence.
• Shocked Christian Europe.

Schmalkaldic League (1531)

• Military alliance of Lutheran princes.
• Formed to resist imperial enforcement of Catholicism.
• Demonstrates political organization of Protestantism.
• Eventually defeated but forced compromise.

Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531, Zurich)

• Swiss reformer independent of Luther.
• Rejected Catholic sacraments and ritual.
• Emphasized Scripture and simplicity.
• His disagreements with Luther fractured Protestant unity.

Marburg Colloquy (1529)

• Meeting between Luther and Zwingli.
• Attempted to unify Protestant movements.
• Failed over interpretation of communion.
• Revealed deep theological divisions.

Anabaptists

• Rejected infant baptism as unbiblical.
• Advocated voluntary adult faith.
• Often pacifist and communal.
• Persecuted by both Catholics and Protestants.

Millenarianism

• Belief in the imminent end of the world.
• Inspired radical religious movements.
• Often linked to social upheaval.
• Feared by authorities.

New Jerusalem (Münster, 1534)

• Radical Anabaptist-controlled city.
• Practiced communal property and polygamy.
• Ended in violent suppression.
• Discredited radical reform movements.

Mennonites / Amish

• Peaceful Anabaptist groups.
• Rejected violence and state authority.
• Emphasized community and simplicity.