public Policy Test 1

What is public policy?

What public officials within the government, and by extension, the citizens they represent, choose to do or not to do about public problems.

What are public problems?

Conditions the public widely perceives as unacceptable and therefore require intervention.

Who defined public policy as a “standing decision characterized by behavioral consistency and repetitiveness on the part of both those who make it and those who abide by it.”?

Eulau and Prewitt (1973)

How does public policy address uncertainty?

Public policy reduces uncertainty by the government in dealing with specific problem.

What is the relationship between uncertainty and cost when it comes to policy?

As uncertainty increases the cost to implement policies increase for both government and citizens.

What defines a Political institution?

Stable rules, norms, and organizations that structure political behavior and decision-making.

Why do political institutions matter?

They organize power, constrain authority, and create predictable processes for governance.

What defines a formal institution?

Written rules such as constitutions, laws, and regulations.

What defines an informal institution?

Unwritten norms, traditions, and practices that influence behavior.

How do institutions shape behavior?

They create incentives and constraints that guide political actors.

What is the role of constitutions?

They define authority, allocate power, and limit government action.

Separation of powers

Division of authority among legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Checks and balances

Mechanisms that allow branches to limit one another’s power.

Why do institutions resist change?

They benefit existing power holders and require collective agreement to reform.

Poor institutional design effect

Undermines accountability, equality, and democratic legitimacy.

Institutions and citizen trust

Fair and transparent institutions increase trust; biased ones reduce it.

Legislative oversight

Efforts by legislators to monitor and control bureaucratic agencies.

Police patrol oversight

Direct, active monitoring of agencies by legislators.

Fire alarm oversight

Monitoring system where citizens and interest groups alert legislators to problems.

Cost of police patrol oversight

Requires continuous time, effort, and resources.

Why legislators prefer fire alarms

They are cheaper, more efficient, and shift monitoring to outsiders.

Citizen role in fire alarm oversight

Reporting agency misconduct or failures.

Interest group role in oversight

Monitoring agencies and mobilizing complaints.

Fire alarm accountability effect

Agencies act cautiously due to potential political consequences.

Weakness of fire alarm oversight

Favors organized and well-resourced interests.

When police patrol oversight works best

Highly technical or high-risk policy areas.

Three branches of government

Legislative, executive, and judicial.

Legislative branch role

Making laws and overseeing the executive.

Executive branch role

Implementing and enforcing laws.

Judicial branch role

Interpreting laws and resolving disputes.

Purpose of bureaucracy

Administer complex policies and provide expertise.

Why bureaucracy is controversial

It is unelected but holds significant authority.

Bureaucratic discretion

Agency ability to interpret and apply laws.

Tools to control bureaucracy

Oversight, budgets, appointments, and legislation.

Importance of transparency

Allows evaluation of government performance.

Institutions and policy implementation

They determine authority, decision-making, and enforcement.

Institutions and accountability

They establish oversight rules, transparency, and power limits.

Institutional design and oversight

Design determines whether monitoring is proactive or reactive.

Anderson and McCubbins connection

Institutions structure how oversight operates.

Efficiency vs accountability tradeoff

More oversight increases accountability but may reduce efficiency.

Policy capacity

The ability of government institutions to identify problems, formulate solutions, and implement policy effectively.

Fragmented government effect on policymaking

Divided authority increases veto points and coordination challenges.

Veto point

A place in the policy process where a proposal can be blocked.

Why the U.S. has many veto points

Separation of powers, bicameralism, federalism, and judicial review.

Institutions and policy stability

More veto points slow change and favor incremental policy.

Congress as a reactive institution

Congress often responds to crises, public pressure, or executive proposals.

Agenda control in Congress

Leadership and committees decide which issues receive attention and votes.

Why Congress relies on staff

Policy complexity and limited member time require expertise.

Effect of polarization on Congress

Reduces compromise and increases gridlock.

Political risk of congressional oversight

Oversight may alienate constituents, agencies, or interest groups.

Presidency institutional constraints

Presidents lack unilateral lawmaking authority and face checks from Congress and courts.

Unilateral presidential action

Actions taken without Congress, such as executive orders.

Why presidents use executive orders

They are fast, visible, and bypass legislative gridlock.

Limits of executive orders

Legal challenges, administrative capacity, and reversal by future presidents.

Presidential agenda setting

Shaping which issues gain national attention and legislative focus.

Agencies as policymakers

They write rules, interpret laws, and exercise discretion.

Rulemaking

The creation of regulations that give laws specific meaning.

Why bureaucratic discretion exists

Laws are vague and require interpretation during implementation.

Expertise and bureaucratic influence

Agencies possess technical knowledge elected officials often lack.

Why bureaucratic accountability is difficult

Agencies answer to multiple principals with competing goals.

Courts indirect policy influence

Interpreting laws and shaping policy implementation.

Why courts rarely initiate policy

Courts require cases to be brought before them.

Policy impact of judicial review

Courts may uphold, modify, or invalidate policies.

Long-term impact of court decisions

Precedent shapes future interpretation and enforcement.

Federalism and policy experimentation

States test policies before national adoption.

Vertical policy diffusion

Policy ideas moving between federal, state, and local governments.

Shared authority accountability problem

Responsibility for policy outcomes becomes unclear.

State variation in implementation

Differences in resources, priorities, and administrative capacity.

Why interest groups matter in policymaking

Institutional access points allow frequent participation.

Think tank policy influence

Providing research, policy proposals, and issue framing.

Media influence on policy agendas

Shapes public attention and political pressure.

Public opinion constraint on policymakers

Fear of electoral consequences limits policy choices.

Why policymaking is incremental

Fragmented authority and veto points discourage major change.

Efficiency vs accountability tradeoff

More checks increase accountability but slow decision-making.

Why institutions matter more than individuals

Institutions shape behavior regardless of who holds office.

Public Policy

What public officials choose to do or not do about public problems.

Public Problem

A condition widely perceived as unacceptable that requires government intervention.

Eulau and Prewitt’s Definition of Public Policy

A standing decision characterized by behavioral consistency and repetitiveness by policymakers and those who abide by it.

Government

All institutions and actors through which public policy decisions are made.

Policy Output

The actions taken by government to address a public problem.

Policy Outcome

The effects or results of a policy once it has been implemented.

Politics

The process of determining who gets what, when, where, and why.

Lasswell’s View of Politics

Politics is about the distribution of limited resources.

Why Conflict Is Inevitable in Public Policy

Citizens and groups have competing interests and limited resources.

Bargaining in Public Policy

The negotiation among political actors that shapes policy outcomes.

Social Context of Public Policy

Demographics, culture, and social conditions that influence policy decisions.

Economic Context of Public Policy

Economic conditions that shape policy agendas and government action.

Why Economic Issues Dominate the Policy Agenda

Economic conditions affect voters, public spending, and government revenue.

Market Failure

When markets fail to efficiently allocate goods or services.

Monopoly

A market structure where one firm dominates and restricts competition.

Natural Monopoly

A market where high infrastructure or delivery costs make one provider most efficient.

Negative Externality

A cost imposed on third parties who are not part of a transaction.

Example of a Negative Externality

Crime and neighborhood harm resulting from illicit drug markets.