Bio

Bio 2

Multicellular Organisms Organization

The hierarchical structure includes cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.

Emergent Property

A property that a collection or complex system has, but the individual components do not.

The 5 Kingdoms of Life

Fungi, Plantae, Animalia, Protists.

The 3 Domains of Life

Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukaryota.

Important Elements for Life

Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, and carbon.

Atomic Structure

Consists of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, with electrons orbiting in shells.

Atomic Mass

The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.

Atomic Number

The number of protons in an atom.

Isotope

An atom that contains a different number of neutrons than protons.

Valence and Chemical Bonding

Chemical bonding occurs to fill valence shells, leading to stability when shells are full.

Types of Chemical Bonds

Ionic bonds (transfer of electrons) and covalent bonds (sharing electrons).

Covalent Bond

A type of bond where electrons are shared between two atoms.

Ionic Bond

A type of bond where one atom donates an electron, leading to an attraction between positive and negative ions.

Hydrogen Bonding

Weak bonds formed between hydrogen in a polar molecule and electronegative atoms in another molecule.

Polar Molecules

Molecules that have an unequal distribution of electrons, leading to partial charges.

Water Characteristics

Water is a polar molecule that exhibits hydrogen bonding, influencing its physical and chemical properties.

Carbon Diversity

Carbon's ability to form four bonds allows for various molecular configurations and biological diversity.

Polymerization Process

Accomplished through covalent bonding, often via dehydration reactions.

Dehydration Reaction

The removal of a water molecule to form a bond.

Hydrolysis

The addition of a water molecule to break a bond.

Functions of Carbohydrates

Used for energy (simple sugars), storage (starches), and structural components (cellulose, chitin).

Monosaccharides

Simple sugars that serve as monomers for larger carbohydrates.

Disaccharides

Formed from two monosaccharides through dehydration reaction; bonded by glycosidic linkage.

Starch vs Cellulose

Starch is used for energy storage in plants while cellulose provides structure in plant cell walls.

Biological Function of Lipids

Hydrophobic molecules that may contain a carboxyl group at one end, forming structure of hormones.

Fatty Acid Structure

Comprises a carbon/hydrogen chain, which may be saturated or unsaturated, linked to a glycerol backbone.

Phospholipid Structure

Major component of cell membranes, containing hydrophilic and hydrophobic domains.

Role of Membrane Proteins

Proteins that provide passage for molecules across the lipid bilayer.

Protein Functions

Include structural (collagen), transport (hemoglobin), hormonal (insulin), and enzymatic roles.

Primary Structure of Protein

Order of amino acids in a polypeptide.

Secondary Structure of Protein

Stabilized by hydrogen bonds affecting the backbone structure.

Tertiary Structure of Protein

Shape formed from interactions between side chains or R groups.

Quaternary Structure of Protein

Complex formed by multiple polypeptide chains interacting.

Nucleotide Structure

Composed of a 5-carbon sugar, nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group.

Nucleic Acids Functions

Store genetic information and serve as templates for protein synthesis.

DNA vs RNA

DNA is double-stranded and stable, while RNA is single-stranded and more transient.

Double Helix Structure

Two anti-parallel strands with complementary base pairing (A-T and G-C).

The Central Dogma

Information flows from DNA to RNA to proteins.

Cellular Energy Needs

Energy is required for building complex structures and maintaining cellular processes.

Catabolism

Breakdown of complex molecules to release energy.

Anabolism

Building of complex molecules requiring energy input.

ATP Function

Acts as the primary energy carrier in cells, releasing energy upon hydrolysis.

Enzymatic Function

Enzymes catalyze reactions, returning to their original state without being consumed.

Competitive Inhibition

Inhibitor mimics substrate and binds to the active site, blocking access.

Noncompetitive Inhibition

Inhibitor binds elsewhere on the enzyme, altering its shape and function.

Feedback Inhibition

A process where high levels of a product inhibit its own synthesis.

Prokaryotic Cells

Small, simple cells without membrane-bound organelles, typically bacteria.

Eukaryotic Cells

Larger, complex cells containing membrane-bound organelles; includes plant and animal cells.

Cell Membrane Structure

Lipid bilayer with embedded proteins that govern membrane fluidity and function.

Cell Membrane Functions

Regulates transport, signal transduction, and cell communication.

Diffusion

Passive movement of molecules from high to low concentration until equilibrium is reached.

Osmosis

Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Facilitated Diffusion

Transport of molecules across a membrane via integral proteins without energy use.

Active Transport

Energy-requiring process moving molecules against their concentration gradient.

Endocytosis Types

Includes phagocytosis (cell eating), pinocytosis (cell drinking), and receptor-mediated endocytosis.

Ribosomes Function

Synthesize proteins by translating mRNA templates.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Types

Rough ER (has ribosomes, synthesizes proteins) and Smooth ER (no ribosomes, synthesizes lipids).

Golgi Apparatus Function

Modifies and packages proteins and lipids received from the ER.

Cell Renewal Process

Involves recycling old molecules and organelles; may involve apoptosis.

Lysosomes

Contain digestive enzymes for breaking down macromolecules and cellular debris.

Peroxisomes

Enzymatic structures that degrade hydrogen peroxide and other toxic substances.