Studied by 6 people
empiricism
the view that knowledge originates in experience that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.
psychodynamic psychology
branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
Industrial Organizational Psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
structuralism
early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
natural selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
social-cultural psychology
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
human factors psychology
an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
functionalism
early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
levels of analysis
the levels of differing complementary views from biological to psychological to social-cultural for analyzing any given phenomenon
psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
counseling psychology
branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, marriage) and in achieving greater well being
experimental psychology
the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach the incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy
behaviorism
the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes
behavioral psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior and its explanation by principles of learning
educational psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
positive psychology
the scientific study of human functioning with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
humanistic psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people
biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes
personality psychology
the study of individuals characteristic pattern of thinking feeling and acting
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memories, and language)
cognitive psychology
the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another
testing effect
repeated self-testing and rehearsal of previously studied material
psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
sampling bias
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
correlation
a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other
correlational coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.0 to +1.0)
scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)
experimental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
control group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups
double blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
independent variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
dependent variable
the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
validity
the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to
descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. includes measures of central tendency and measures of variable
mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
mean
the arithmetic average of distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
skewed distribution
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
normal curve
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes
inferential statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
Parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step by step processing of most computers and conscious problem-solving
Sensory memory
the immediate very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Short term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten
Long term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
Working memory
a newer understanding of short term memory that focuses on conscious active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial information, and of information retrieved from long term memory
Explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare
Effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
Automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space time and frequency, and of well learned information such as word meanings
Implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection
Iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
Echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, if attention elsewhere sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
Shallow processing
encoding on a basic level on the structure or appearance of words
Deep processing
encoding semantically based on the meaning of words; tends to yield the best retention
Recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier
Recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations thus predisposing one’s perception memory or response
Mood congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good/bad mood
Serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
Anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
Retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past
Proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning in the recall of new information
Retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category. matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories
creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. contrasts with the usually speedier- but also more error-prone- use of heuristics
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
representative heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability of memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
