AP PSYCHOLOGY TRUE CUMULATIVE SEMESTER 1

empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

psychodynamic psychology

branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

Industrial Organizational Psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

human factors psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

levels of analysis

the levels of differing complementary views from biological to psychological to social-cultural for analyzing any given phenomenon

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

counseling psychology

branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, marriage) and in achieving greater well being

experimental psychology

the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach the incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior and its explanation by principles of learning

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes

personality psychology

the study of individuals characteristic pattern of thinking feeling and acting

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memories, and language)

cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another

testing effect

repeated self-testing and rehearsal of previously studied material

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other

correlational coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.0 to +1.0)

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

double blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. includes measures of central tendency and measures of variable

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

mean

the arithmetic average of distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step by step processing of most computers and conscious problem-solving

Sensory memory

the immediate very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten

Long term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Working memory

a newer understanding of short term memory that focuses on conscious active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial information, and of information retrieved from long term memory

Explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

Effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space time and frequency, and of well learned information such as word meanings

Implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

Iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, if attention elsewhere sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Shallow processing

encoding on a basic level on the structure or appearance of words

Deep processing

encoding semantically based on the meaning of words; tends to yield the best retention

Recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier

Recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations thus predisposing one’s perception memory or response

Mood congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good/bad mood

Serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

Retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

Proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning in the recall of new information

Retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. contrasts with the usually speedier- but also more error-prone- use of heuristics

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

representative heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability of memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common