Chapter 7 — Thinking Processes, Cognition, and Intelligence

A set of Q&A flashcards covering key concepts from the notes on thinking, cognition, concepts, problem solving, creativity, and intelligence.

What is thinking (cognition)?

Mental activity that goes on in the brain when organizing and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others.

What are mental images?

Mental representations that stand for objects or events; have a picture-like quality.

What is a concept?

An idea that represents a class or category of objects, events, or activities.

What is a formal concept?

A concept defined by specific rules or features (e.g., square).

What is a natural concept?

Concepts formed from real-world experiences; examples include vegetables; a skate is a fuzzy natural concept.

What is a prototype?

An example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of that concept.

Why are prototypes important in thinking?

They come to mind most easily when people think of a concept, guiding categorization and judgments.

What is problem solving in cognition?

The process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.

What is trial and error in problem solving?

Trying possible solutions one after another until a successful one is found.

What is an algorithm in problem solving?

A very specific, step-by-step procedure for solving certain types of problems.

What is a heuristic?

An educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down possible solutions; a rule of thumb.

What is the representative heuristic?

Assuming objects or people sharing characteristics belong to the same category.

What is the availability heuristic?

Estimating the likelihood of an event based on how easily relevant examples come to mind.

What is working backward as a problem-solving heuristic?

Working backward from the goal to determine the steps needed to reach it.

What is insight in problem solving?

A sudden perception of a solution to a problem.

What are common barriers to problem solving?

Functional fixedness, mental set, and confirmation bias.

What is functional fixedness?

A block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions.

What is mental set in problem solving?

The tendency to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked in the past.

What is confirmation bias?

Tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring evidence that does not fit.

What is the solution to the string problem?

Use the pliers as a pendulum to get the second string closer to you.

What is the solution concept of the nine-dot problem?

Think outside the box—extend lines beyond the dot boundaries.

What is creativity in problem solving?

The process of solving problems by combining ideas or behaviors in new ways.

What is convergent thinking?

Thinking in which a problem is seen as having a single correct answer, using logic and prior knowledge.

What is divergent thinking?

Starting from one point and generating many different ideas or possibilities.

What traits are common among creative people?

Broad knowledge, good mental imagery, willingness to be different, independence, and unconventionality.

What are the five steps to developing creative solutions?

Preparation, incubation, insight, evaluation, and elaboration.

What are the methods listed for stimulating divergent thinking?

Brainstorming, keeping a journal, freewriting, and mind/subject mapping.

How is intelligence defined?

The ability to learn from experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems.

What is Spearman’s g factor and s factor?

g: general intelligence; s: specific intelligence (abilities in particular domains).

What is Gardner’s theory of intelligence?

Nine intelligences: verbal/linguistic, musical, logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, movement, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, existential.

What is Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence?

Analytical intelligence (problem solving), creative intelligence (new ideas), and practical intelligence (everyday adaptability).

What is analytic intelligence?

Mental steps or components used to solve problems.

What is creative intelligence?

The use of experience to foster insight and novel solutions.

What is practical intelligence?

The ability to read, adapt to, and navigate everyday life contexts.

How is intelligence typically measured?

Using IQ tests that yield scores based on a comparison of mental age to chronological age (e.g., Stanford-Binet, WAIS).

What is an IQ score?

A number representing intelligence, typically derived from MA/CA × 100; mean around 100 with a standard deviation of about 15.

What do standardization, validity, and reliability refer to in testing?

Standardization: administering the test to a representative group to establish norms; validity: whether the test measures what it intends; reliability: test yields consistent results over time.

What is cultural bias in testing?

Early tests favored urban, middle-class, and White populations; culture-fair tests aim to reduce bias but are challenging due to cultural differences.

What is intellectual disability?

A condition where IQ falls below 70 and adaptive behavior is severely deficient for age.

What are the levels of intellectual disability and their typical IQ ranges?

Mild: 55–70; Moderate: 40–55; Severe: 25–40; Profound: below 25—with accompanying adaptive limitations.

What is giftedness?

The top 2% of the population, typically with an IQ of 130 or above.

Does giftedness guarantee success?

No; studies (e.g., Terman) show correlation but not guarantee; several criticisms about objectivity and bias.

What is emotional intelligence?

The awareness of and ability to manage one’s own emotions, motivate oneself, sense others' feelings, and be socially skilled.

What are some ways to improve thinking?

Engage in mental activities like crossword puzzles and reading to keep the brain fit.