Chapter 7 — Thinking Processes, Cognition, and Intelligence

Cognition

• Thinking (cognition): mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others.
• Mental images: mental representations that stand for objects or events; have a picture-like quality.

Concepts

• Concepts: ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities.
• Concept: an idea that represents a category of objects, events, or activities.
• Example of concepts and instances:
  • Instance of the concept “dog”: Golden retriever, Cocker spaniel, Border collie, etc.

Concepts (Types and Roles)

• Formal concepts: concepts that are defined by specific rules or features (e.g., a square).
• Natural concepts: concepts people form as a result of experiences in the real world; often fuzzy (e.g., a skate is a fuzzy natural concept; vegetables are a natural concept).
• Prototype: an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of that concept.
• Prototypes influence how easily people think of a concept (typicality).
• Examples:
  • Tool: hammer is a prototype.
  • Flower: rose is a prototype.

From Prototypes to Typicality (Table 7.1)

• Vehicles (most typical to least typical): Car, Bus, Train, Bicycle, Airplane, Boat, Wheelchair, Sled, Skates, Elevator.
• Fruits (most typical to least typical): Orange, Apple, Peach, Grape, Strawberry, Grapefruit, Watermelon, Date, Tomato, Olive.
• Source: Rosch & Mervis (1975).

Problem Solving

• Problem solving: process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.
• 1) Trial and error (mechanical solution): try one possible solution after another until a successful one is found.
• 2) Algorithms: very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems.
• 3) Heuristic: an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down possible solutions; also known as a “rule of thumb.”

Types of Heuristics

• 1) Representative heuristic: assume objects or people with similar characteristics belong to the same category.
• 2) Availability heuristic: assess frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easily relevant information comes to mind.
• 3) Working backward: start from the goal and work backwards to plan actions (e.g., going to a place by tracing steps backward).

Insight

• Insight: sudden perception of a solution to a problem.

Hindrances to Problem-Solving

• Problem-Solving Barriers:
  • Functional fixedness: blocking problem solving by thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions.
  • Mental set: persisting in using problem-solving patterns that have worked in the past.
  • Confirmation bias: tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring evidence that does not.
• The String Problem (Figure 8.2): solution involves using pliers as a pendulum to bring the second string closer when you cannot reach both strands at the same time.
• The Dot Problem (Figure 8.3): many initial solutions are boxed-in by a mental set; the correct approach requires thinking outside the box and extending lines beyond the box of dots.
• Incorrect vs. Correct Solutions: illustrating how mental sets can mislead problem solving.

Creativity

• Creativity: the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways.
• Convergent thinking: problems are viewed as having only one correct answer; use logic and prior knowledge to reach that answer.
• Divergent thinking: start from one point and generate many different ideas or possibilities; a form of creativity.
• Creative people:
  • Typically have a broad range of knowledge and strong mental imagery,"not afraid to be different","value independence","unconventional in their work".
• Steps to developing Creative Solutions (Five Steps):
  • Preparation: become interested in a problem that arouses curiosity.
  • Incubation: churn ideas around in the head.
  • Insight: pieces seem to fit together.
  • Evaluation: decide if the idea is valuable and worth pursuing.
  • Elaboration: develop the idea further.
• Stimulating Divergent Thinking (Table 7.2):
  • Brainstorming: generate many ideas quickly without judging merits.
  • Keeping a Journal: record ideas as they occur.
  • Freewriting: write everything about a topic without editing, then organize later.
  • Mind or Subject Mapping: map central ideas to related ideas visually.

Intelligence

• Definition: the ability to learn from experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems.

Theories of Intelligence

• Spearman’s Theory:
  • g factor: general intelligence – the ability to reason and solve problems.
  • s factor: specific intelligences – the ability to excel in particular areas (e.g., business, music, art).
• Gardner’s Theory (Nine Intelligences):
  • Verbal/Linguistic: ability to use language.
  • Musical: ability to compose/perform music.
  • Logical/Mathematical: ability to think logically and solve math problems.
  • Visual/Spatial: understand how objects are oriented in space.
  • Movement (Bodily-Kinesthetic): control of body motions.
  • Interpersonal: sensitivity to others and understanding motivation.
  • Intrapersonal: understanding of one’s own emotions.
  • Naturalist: recognize patterns in nature.
  • Existential: see the big picture of the human condition (life, death, existence).
  • Sample occupations: Writers, Musicians, Scientists/Engineers, Artists/Navigators, Dancers/Athletes, Psychologists/Managers, People-oriented careers, Biologists/Botanists, Philosophical thinkers.
• Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory:
  • Analytic (analytical intelligence): ability to break problems into components for analysis.
  • Creative (creative intelligence): ability to deal with new concepts and generate new problem-solving approaches.
  • Practical (practical intelligence): ability to adapt to everyday contexts and get along in life.
• Theories Summary:
  • Analytic intelligence involves mental steps or components.
  • Creative intelligence involves using experience to foster insight.
  • Practical intelligence involves reading and adapting to everyday contexts.

How is Intelligence Measured?

• IQ Tests:
  • IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100.
  • A mathematical formulation used to quantify intelligence.
  • Stanford-Binet scales yield an IQ score.
• Sample Items from Stanford-Binet (1986):
  • Vocabulary: define words like train, wrench, letter, error, encourage.
  • Comprehension: answer questions about why people brush teeth or be quiet in a library; discuss advantages/disadvantages of living in a small town vs. big city.
  • Absurdities: identify mistakes in pictures where items are out of place.
  • Copying: arrange blocks to match designs; draw patterns.
  • Memory for Objects: recall order of pictures.
  • Number Series: determine next numbers in a sequence (e.g., -32, 26, 20, 14, …).
  • Verbal Relations: identify how three items are alike/different from a fourth.
  • Bead Memory: match beads to pictures with varying layouts.
• Wechsler Intelligence Tests (WAIS):
  • Yields Verbal Scale score, Performance Scale score, and an overall IQ score.
  • Sample Verbal Scale items include Information, Comprehension, Arithmetic, Similarities, Vocabulary.
  • Sample Performance Scale items include Picture Arrangement, Picture Completion, Block Design, Object Assembly, Digit Symbol.
  • Example items from WAIS: questions about general knowledge, problem-solving, pattern completion, and symbol learning.
• Development of IQ Tests:
  • Deviation IQ scores: IQ is normally distributed around a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of about 15.
  • Standardization: administer the test to a large, representative sample.
  • Validity: degree to which a test measures what it’s supposed to measure.
  • Reliability: tendency of a test to produce the same scores across administrations.
• The Normal Curve and Standard Deviations (SD):
  • The percentages under each section of the normal curve represent the percentage of scores within that section for each SD from the mean.
  • The mean is set at 100 for IQ tests; SD is about 15.

Cultural Bias in Testing

• Early IQ tests were culturally biased toward urban, middle-class, White Americans and against rural, low- SES groups.
• Culture-fair tests aim to be culturally unbiased, but true cultural neutrality is difficult due to varying cultural views on intelligence.

Intellectual Disability

• Intellectual disability: IQ falls below 70 with adaptive behavior severely deficient for the person’s chronological age.
• Four levels of delay:
  • Mild: 55–70 IQ
  • Moderate: 40–55 IQ
  • Severe: 25–40 IQ
  • Profound: Below 25 IQ
• Causes: deprived environments, chromosome/genetic disorders, dietary deficiencies.
• Adaptive limitations and functional skills vary by level; most individuals with intellectual disability fall into the mild range and can learn to a certain degree with support.
• Table 7.7 (Classification of Intellectual Disability):
  • Mild (55–70): can reach up to 6th-grade skills; capable of independent living with training; ~90% of intellectually disabled population.
  • Moderate (40–55): up to 2nd-grade skills; can work/ live in sheltered environments; ~6%.
  • Severe (25–40): can learn basic self-care; needs constant supervision; ~3%.
  • Profound (<25): very limited learning; ~1%.

Giftedness

• Gifted: top ~2% of the population on the upper end of the normal curve, typically IQ ≥ 130.
• Does giftedness guarantee success? Not necessarily.
• Terman’s longitudinal study suggested gifted individuals often become successful adults, but his work faced criticisms for objectivity and involvement with participants.
• Emotional intelligence (EI): awareness and management of one’s own emotions; ability to feel what others feel and to be socially skilled; seen as a powerful influence on life success.

Ways to Improve Thinking

• Mental activities that require creativity and memory can help keep the brain fit (e.g., puzzles, reading).