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This flashcard set is based on Myers' Psychology for the AP Course 4th Edition by David Myers, Nathan DeWall, and Elizabeth Hammer.
What is the idea of behavior?
Anything an organism does that we CAN RECORD/OBSERVE.
What is the idea of mental processes?
Our internal, subjective experiences, like our sensations, perceptions, dreams.
What is the nature-nurture issue?
A controversy over the contributions that genes and experience make on the development of psychological traits/behaviors.
What is natural selection?
The idea that the inherited traits by organisms enable it to either survive and pass those traits onto other generations, or die.
What is evolutionary psychology? Hint: also remember what it uses :)
The idea that behaviors have evolved over time and the “better” traits will stick (natural selection).
What are behavior genetics?
The study of how much our genes and environment affect our behavior.
Evolutionary success helps to (explain/disprove) similarities between each other.
explain
What percentage of genetic variation exists within populations?
Roughly 95%
Our similarities between each other reflects what?
Our human genome! (our common set of genes)
What is a mutation?
Random changes in DNA that can lead to new traits.
What is heredity?
Genes that transfer from our parents to us :)
What is the environment in terms of how it shapes our behavior?
It is any nongenetic influence that shapes our behavior.
What is a genome?
A complete set of instructions for making an organism.
What is a gene?
A biochemical unit that shapes our heredity.
What does it mean to be polygenetic?
It means that our differing traits are influenced by many genes of small effect.
Example: Chimps and Bonobos are really similar genetically, but their personalities are extremely different.
How do we see what role the enviornment plays on our genetic differences?
They conduct studies, like family, twin, and adoption studies, to see how they shape our human nature and human diversity.
What do family studies search for?
They look for traits and diseases that tend to be shared by family members.
Example: Among biological siblings, or by a parent and a child.
What do twin/adoption studies search for?
They look to see the effects of shared genes and shared environments. (they do this in more detail)
What are identical (monozygotic) twins?
Individuals who developed from a single fertilized eff that split into two, creating two genetically identical organisms.
What are fraternal (dizygotic) twins?
Individuals that develop from two separate fertilized eggs.
Why is the idea of adoption so beneficial for psychologists?
It is because they can see if a child is more like their biological parents (genetic relatives) or their adoptive parents (environmental relatives).
What is the most important behavioral hallmark of our species?
The idea of adaptation and how different people adapt in different ways.
Example: You may decide to go barefoot for a long time while your neighbor doesn’t. Your foot becomes hardened while your neighbor’s remains tenderfoot.
What does it mean to interact?
The interplay between one factor (EX: the environment) that depends on another factor (like heredity).
What are epigenetics?
How our environment can influence gene expression without changing the DNA itself.
Example: A butterfly will turn brown in the summer but white in the winter.
Recall that genes can be either ____ or ____.
active; inactive
In the world of psychology, what two things constantly interact with each other to form our behavior?
our genes and environments.
What is a constraint to nuture?
It only works on what nature endows.
Example: Genes might set the stage (e.g. potential height), but environment (like nutrition) helps determine the outcome.
What are the two types of nervous systems in the human body?
Peripheral Nervous System and Central Nervous System.
What does the Peripheral Nervous System contain?
All nerves outside the central nervous system.
What does the Central Nervous System contain?
Brain and Spinal Cord.
What is the function of the Peripheral Nervous System?
To connect the CNS to the rest of the body—like the highways and backroads that connect cities.
What are the two types of Peripheral Nervous Systems?
Autonomic and Somatic
What is the autonomic nervous system?
It is everything that happens out of your control (like stomach digesting), involuntary actions.
What are the two types of Autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic.
What does the Parasympathetic nervous system do?
It helps to calm the body and return it to a state or relaxedness
What does the Sympathetic nervous system do?
It is known as the “fight-or-flight” and preps the body for this (dialates pupils, slows digestion, increases respiration and heart rate, etc).
What is the Somatic nervous system?
It controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles
What are Reflexes?
Automatic responses to stimuli, like pulling your hand away from a hot stove.
What are nerves?
Bundled axons that form neural cables to connect the CNS with muscles, glands, sensory organs, etc,.
What are sensory (afferent) neurons?
They carry incoming information from the body’s receptors TO the brain.
What are motor (efferent) neurons?
They carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body
What are interneurons?
Neurons contained in the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally between the afferent and efferent neurons.
What are some things that occur in your sympathetic nervous system?
Heart accelerates, pupils dilate, digestion slows, bladder relaxes.
What are some things that occur in your parasympathetic nervous system?
Heart slows, pupils contract, digestion regulates normally, bladder contracts.
What are neurons?
Specialized cells that transmit electrical signals (between other neurons)
What is the function of neurons?
To carry out most of the brain’s communication (send messages from brain to body and back).
What kind of process is it when a neuron fires to ANOTHER neuron?
A chemical process
What kind of process is it when a neuron is firing within itself?
An electrical process
What is Multiple Sclerosis (MS)?
It is a neural transmission disorder that occurs when the myelin sheath is damaged. It slows down/blocks signals.
What is Myasthenia Gravis?
An autoimmune disorder when acetylcholine receptors are attacked, leading to muscle weakness.
What is the endocrine system?
A communication system that uses hormones instead of neurotransmitters.
What are hormones?
Chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream.
What do hormones generally do (what is their goal)?
To affect behavior and mood.
What are some examples of hormones?
Oxytocin, Leptin, Adrenaline, Melatonin, Gherline.
What is leptin?
A hormone that regulates hunger and fat storage.
What is gherline?
It stimulates hunger
What are Psychoactive Drugs?
Substances that affect brain activity and lead to changes in perception, mood, or consciousness.
How do Psychoactive Drugs affect neurotransmitters?
They change how neurotransmitters operate by either enhancing or inhibiting (restrain) their function.
What is an agonist?
A drug that mimic neurotransmitters or enhance their action.
Example: Opioids like heroin reduce pain and increase endorphins.
What is an antagonist?
Drugs that block neurotransmitter activity.
Example: Antipsychotics that block dopamine receptors to prevent hallucinations.
What are reuptake inhibitors?
Drugs that prevent the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, increasing their activities.
Example: Cocaine which blocks dopamine uptake, causing an intense “high”
What are stimulants?
They speed up body functions and enhance energy.
Example: Caffeine, cocaine, methamphetamines.
What does caffeine do to the body?
Stimulates the CNS to release dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine in the brain.
What does cocaine do to the body?
Stimulates the CNS to promote excitement, energy, talking, and euphoria.
What do amphetamines do to the body?
Stimulates the CNS by increasing dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin throughout the brain.
What does alcohol do to the body?
It binds to the neurotransmitter GABA to promote relaxation, depress judgement and inhibition.
What do Sedative hypnotic drugs do to the body?
Reduces anxiety and promotes sleep.
What do barbiturates do to the body?
It attaches to GABA to reduce excitement and helps it operate at neurons.
What do Benzodiazepines do to the body?
It binds to receptors on neurons that receive GABA and increases its activity.
What do opioids do to the body?
They depress the CNS by attaching to brain receptors to block endorphins.
What does LSD do to the body?
Binds to neurons that receive serotonin, which changes its activity at those sites.
What does methamphetamine do to the body?
Stimulate the CNS by increasing dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonine (causes up to 8h of euphoria).
What is tolerance?
The need to take more of a drug to achieve the same effect.
What is withdrawl?
Physical and psychological symptoms when stopping the drug.
Example: Anxiety, nausea, tremors, etc.
What is addiction?
A craving for a substance despite harmful consequences.
What is Substance Use Disorder? What are its impacts?
When drug use becomes uncontrollable and interferes with daily life.
Impacts behavior, relationships, and mental health.
What the Physiological Effects of Substance Use?
Physical health problems like liver damage (alcohol) or lung damage (smoking).
What are the Psychological Effects of Substance Use?
Depression, anxiety, or paranoia, which can develop due to long-term drug use.
What is the difference between Neurotransmitters and Hormones (test question)?
Neurotransmitters: quick actions that are in and out, but their messages are short.
Hormones: take awhile to get to a destination, but last longer.
What are Depressents?
They slow down body functions and neural activity.
What are Hallucinogens?
They alter the perception of people visually/auditorally.
What do Hallucinogens do the human body/neurotransmitters?
They affect serotonin or endocannabinoid systems, leading to distorted reality or mood shifts.
What are glial cells?
They protect, nourish, and clean up after neurons to an environment for them to function properly.
What are the two types of glial cells?
Macroglia (Macrocytes) and Microglia (microcytes).
What do Macrocytes (Macroglia) do?
They help with the production of myelin (the insulator of the axon) and ensures the blood-brain barrier.
What do microcytes (microglia) do?
They are used for immune defense.
What is the blood-brain barrier? What is its weakness?
It stops contaminated things from getting into the brain and is tightly woven
Weakness: Some things can get through (antidepressents, caffeine)
What is the function of the cell body?
To house the nucleus and produce energy for the cell (neurons control center)
What is the function of dendrites?
They receive incoming signals from other neurons (the “listeners” of the neuron).
What is the function of the axon?
To send signals to other neurons or muscles.
What is the myelin sheath made of?
A fatty layer
What is the function of the myelin sheath?
To speed up electrical signal transmission.
What is synapse?
It is the small gap between neurons where communication occurs.
What is the function of synapse?
They transfers signals using neurotransmitters (chemicals) between neurons.
What happens when neurons fire together (test question)?
They wire together and get used to each other.
EX: The more you do something, the better you are at it.
What is an action potential and how is it triggered?
A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon and is triggered when the neuron reaches a threshold.
What is the All-or-Nothing Principle?
The idea that a neuron either fires or it doesn't--there’s no halfway.
What is depolarization?
When a neuron’s charge becomes less negative, leading to firing.
Walk through the process of depolarization…
When something happens, the neuron becomes depolarized (becomes less negative), which allows the positive ions to rush in and help the neuron fire (it becomes less negative on the inside to do this).
What is the refractory period?
The cooldown a neuron has after it fires. (cooldown before it can fire again)
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