Levels are the energy levels/periods/rows, Sublevels are s, p, d, and f, Orbitals are the positions that hold the electrons (# of orbitals half of # of maximum electrons)
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Why do ionic bonds tend to have higher melting, boiling points than covalent bonds?
attraction of opposite charge is highly favorable, meaning more energy is needed to break this stability
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What is the relationship between an ionic and covalent bond?
Ionic bonds are actually covalent bonds, it's just the electronegativity difference is so much that the electron is transferred completely and not shared
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Describe all the covalent bond interactions involving electrons and nucleus
while there's attraction between all electrons and both nuclei, there is also repulsion between nuclei and between electrons, meaning covalent bonds form at the most ideal balance of these forces
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What are the x and y axes of the covalent bond graph?
X: internuclear distance in picometers Y: potential energy (Joules)
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Explain the relationship between internuclear distance and potential energy
Up to the ideal/favorable point where the covalent bond fully forms, potential energy decreases due to the increasing nuclei-electron attraction, but afterwards, potential energy increases because the atoms are bonded together yet experience greater repulsion of like charges
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How would a Cl-Cl bond compare to an H-H bond on the covalent bond graph?
Cl-Cl will have greater internuclear distance due to more shielding, and the shielding means the valence electrons are farther from both nuclei, so less attraction means greater potential energy
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Name different levels of covalent bonds longest to shortest
single-double-triple
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Bond energy definition
energy required to separate 1 mole of a certain bond
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Lattice energy definition
the energy required to form one mole of a solid ionic compound from its gaseous ions
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Coulomb's law
lattice energy = constant * (charge in Coulombs of ion #1)(charge in Coulombs of ion #2) over internuclear distance
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Which factor has the bigger effect on lattice energy: internuclear distance or charge?
Charge
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Describe the photoelectron spectroscopy graph
the y axis is number of e-, and the x axis is the binding energy that decreases as the electrons move further away from the nucleus
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Starting from 1s, describe the gap widths seen on photoelectron spectroscopy graphs
As the energy levels and sublevels increase towards the right, the greatest gaps are between energy levels (EX: 1 to 2) and the smaller gaps are between sublevels (EX: s to p)
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What does the Born Haber cycle show?
shows the enthalpy changes that occur in each step of separating/forming an ionic compound
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Amount of main, possible steps in the Born Haber cycle and exceptions
5; however, some molecules don't require all steps to occur; EX: In MgS, both atoms are already single as opposed to Na + Cl2
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Born Haber cycle step 1; +/- enthalpy change
convert any non-gaseous atoms into gaseous state; endothermic
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Born Haber cycle step 2; enthalpy change
separate any diatomic atoms into single atoms; endothermic
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Born Haber cycle step 3; enthalpy change
ionization energy is needed to remove the electron(s) from the cation; endothermic
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Born Haber cycle step 4; enthalpy change
the anion's electron affinity energy attracts the cation's electron(s); exothermic
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Born Haber cycle step 5; enthalpy change
the oppositely-charged gaseous ions now combine to form the final solid compound; exothermic
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What do you have to note about electron affinity and ionization energies for atoms that can give away/accept 2 or more electrons?
if atoms give away multiple electrons, those electrons have different ionization energies; so atoms that accept multiple electrons have different electron affinity energies specific to each
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If you still have leftover electrons, which atoms should most likely get those extra electrons? (3)
\-more electronegative atoms
\-atoms that currently have a positive formal charge
\-atom that is most furthest down a period starting at period 3
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Formal charge equation
of expected valence electrons - actual valence electrons
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Polarity definition
the uneven sharing of electrons in molecules due to asymmetrical structure and different electronegativities
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Resonance structure definition
structures in which the overall compound charge and position of the atoms stays the same, but the position of some electrons can move around due to not being localized
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Hybrid structure 2 aspects
\-more stable than the different resonance structures separate
\-like a mix of all the resonance structures, so its bond length is between that of single and double bonds
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Why can atoms period 3 and beyond expand their octets?
because they have an s, p and d sublevels, not just s and p
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Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory
molecular geometries can be determined thanks to the repulsions between electrons and the greatest minimizations of those repulsions
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