Non-Communicable diseases & Monoclonal antibodies

What type of protein is used by the body to counter antigens?

Antibodies

What name is given to the proteins on the surface of cells that may trigger an attack by the body against a donated organ?

Antigens

What are antibodies?

Antibodies are proteins produced by the body to counter antigens.

What are antigens?

Antigens are proteins found on the surface of cells that may trigger an attack by the body against a donated organ. In this case, the body is trying to reject the donated organ.

True or false? Antibodies are made from proteins?

TRUE

True or false? Monoclonal antibodies are produced from a single clone of a cell?

TRUE

Lymphocytes are combined with a particular kind of tumour cell to make a cell called a __________ cell?

Hybridoma (A hybrid is something made by combining two different things.)

A disadvantage of using monoclonal antibodies as treatment is that they create — —?

Monoclonal antibody treatment can cause unwanted side effects.

What’s an advantage of using monoclonal antibodies to treat cancer?

Monoclonal antibodies deliver the substance directly to the cancer cells without harming other cells in the body. (this is a specific and targeted approach.)

What do monoclonal antibodies bind to in order to treat cancer?

Antigen

In order to prevent cancer from being spread around the body, what do cancer cells need to be prevented from doing?

Dividing

In research, monoclonal antibodies are bound to a — dye, making it easier to locate or identify specific molecules in a cell or tissue?

In research, monoclonal antibodies are bound to a brightly coloured, fluorescent dye, making it easier to locate or identify specific molecules in a cell or tissue.

What can monoclonal antibodies help detect that can cause disease?

Monoclonal antibodies can detect pathogens such as bacteria and viruses.

In pregnancy tests, a monoclonal antibody combines with — — —. This hormone is only present in the urine during the early stages of pregnancy?

In pregnancy tests, a monoclonal antibody combines with human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG). This hormone is only present in the urine during the early stages of pregnancy.

Monoclonal antibodies are — before a blood transfusion?

Monoclonal antibodies are screened before a blood transfusion.

Why are monoclonal antibodies screened before a blood transfusion?

Monoclonal antibodies are screened before a blood transfusion to lessen the chance of the recipient's body rejecting the transfusion.

Hybridoma cells' two functions are to make antibodies and —.

Divide

Lymphocytes are produced when a mouse is injected with an —.

Antigen

What type of cell is produced from the fusion of a lymphocyte from a specific clone and a myeloma cell?

A hybridoma cell is the result of fusion between a lymphocyte from a specific clone and a myeloma cell.

What name is given to an antibody that only reacts with a highly specific antigen, and has been produced using laboratory-grown lymphocytes?

Monoclonal antibodies

How are monoclonal antibodies made and what do they react with?

They are produced using laboratory-grown white blood cells called lymphocytes. They only react with highly-specific antigens.

Pregnancy testing kits contain — — which detect the concentration of a specific hormone, human chorionic gonadotrophin?

Monoclonal antibodies

Explain the effects of alcohol on: The brain?

Goes soft & pulpy when it damages structure, can effect frontal lobe and can destruct brain cells.

Explain the effects of alcohol on: The liver?

Causes inflammation, kills liver cells (replaced with scar tissue causing cirrhosis of the liver), and can link/lead to liver cancer.

Explain the effects of alcohol on: Unborn babies?

Alcohol passes to baby through the placenta = foetal alcohol syndrome, baby’s liver can’t cope with alcohol, baby could have facial deformities, teeth, jaw, kidney, liver, heart or hearing problems.

What is Metastasis? 

The process by which cancer cells break away from the primary tumor, travels through the bloodstream or lymphatic system, and forms new, secondary tumors in other organs or tissues.

What what is a tumour?

An abnormal mass of tissue caused by cells dividing and growing excessively, or failing to die when they should. These growths can occur anywhere in the body and are classified as either benign or malignant.

Outline 3 factors that can cause a tumour. ?

1. Carcinogens (Chemical e.g cigarette smoke and Physical Agents)

2. Genetic Factors (Inherited Mutations)

3. Infections (Biological Agents) e.g HPV

How can smoking cause: Lung cancer?

By delivering (over 70 known) carcinogens in cigarette smoke directly to lung cells, damaging their DNA, and overwhelming the cells ability to repair the damage, leading to uncontrolled growth and tumor formation over time.

How can smoking cause: Heart disease?

By damaging blood vessels, hardening arteries, increasing plaque buildup (atherosclerosis), raising blood pressure & heart rate, reducing oxygen in the blood, and making blood more prone to clotting, forcing the heart to work harder and increasing the risk of heart attacks and strokes. 

How can smoking cause: Affect foetuses?

Smoking harms a fetus, introducing over 4,000 chemicals, primarily nicotine and carbon monoxide, into the bloodstream. These toxins pass through the placenta, starving the fetus of oxygen, restricting nutrients, and damaging developing organs, which causes restricted growth, developmental issues, and increased risks of miscarriage, stillbirth, and premature birth. 

How can coronary heart disease be treated using: Stents?

A minimally invasive procedure called percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or angioplasty. A stent (small wire-mesh tube), is placed in a narrowed coronary artery to prop it open, allowing blood to flow freely, thereby reducing symptoms like angina and treating heart attacks. 

How can coronary heart disease be treated using: Statins?

By lowering low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or "bad" cholesterol production in the liver, typically reducing it by 30-50%. They stabilize fatty plaques in arteries, reducing the risk of them breaking off and causing heart attacks or strokes. These meds are essential for reducing mortality in patients with/at risk of, cardiovascular disease. 

How can coronary heart disease be treated using: Lifestyle?

Being more physically active Regular exercise will make your heart and blood circulatory system more efficient, lower your cholesterol level, and also keep your blood pressure at a healthy level. Exercising regularly reduces your risk of having a heart attack.

What is the difference between Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes? 

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease where the body attacks insulin-producing cells, leading to no insulin production, while Type 2 is when the body either doesn't make enough insulin or becomes resistant to it, often linked to lifestyle.

Explain how Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes can be treated or controlled?

Type 1 diabetes requires lifelong insulin therapy (via injections or pump) alongside blood glucose monitoring and dietary management. Type 2 diabetes is primarily controlled through lifestyle (healthy diet, weight loss, and regular exercise, often supplemented by oral medications (e.g., metformin) or insulin to manage insulin resistance. 

What is Obesity? Outline the risk factors for Obesity?

Obesity is a complex, chronic disease defined by an excessive accumulation of body fat, usually resulting from long-term energy imbalance (calories consumed exceeding calories expended).

The number of smokers in a village increased from 10,000 to 12,000 calculate the percentage increase in the number of smokers in the village? (show working)?

12000 - 10000 = 2000 = the increase

Percentage increase = increase/og number x 100 (for %)

2000/10000 = 0.2 × 100 = 20%

What is Coronary Heart disease and what are its risk factors? 

Occurs when the heart's blood supply is blocked or interrupted by a build-up of fatty substances (atheroma) in the coronary arteries.

What is a balanced diet? 

A balanced diet provides the body with essential nutrients, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fiber, vitamins, minerals, and water in the correct proportions to maintain health, energy, and body weight.

What is the difference between correlation and cause?

Correlation shows two variables change together (an association), while causation means one variable directly causes the other to change (a cause-and-effect link).

Define ‘Malignant Tumors’ and list their key factors?

• Large

• Fast growing

• Invasive

• Poorly-differentiated

• Metastasize

• Infiltrate, invade, destroy surrounding tissue

• Then metastasize to other parts of body

Define ‘Benign Tumors’ and list their key factors?

• Small

• Slow growing

• Non-invasive

• Well-differentiated

• Stay localized

• Stay where they are

• Can't invade or metastasize

What is a deficiency disease?

Deficiency diseases are health conditions caused by a prolonged lack of essential nutrients specifically vitamins, minerals, or proteins needed for proper bodily function and development.

List 2 types of deficiency diseases and their causes?

• Scurvy (Vitamin C Deficiency): Caused by insufficient intake of vitamin C, which is essential for collagen synthesis, leading to symptoms like bleeding gums, joint pain, and fatigue.

• Iron Deficiency Anemia (Iron Deficiency): Caused by a lack of iron, which is necessary for producing hemoglobin; it results in reduced red blood cell production, leading to severe fatigue and weakness.

How does diet and exercise affect your health?

By reducing the risk of chronic diseases (heart disease, cancer, diabetes), managing weight, and improving mental, emotional, and physical well-being.

What is meant by a non-communicable disease?

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are chronic, slow-progressing conditions not passed between people, often driven by lifestyle, genetics, and environmental factors.

Outline actions that can be taken to reduce heart disease?

• Don't smoke or use tobacco

• At least 30 to 60 minutes of activity daily

• Eat a heart-healthy diet

• Maintain a healthy weight

• Get quality sleep

• Manage stress

• Get regular health screening tests

• Take steps to prevent infections.

What is a risk factor?

A risk factor is any behavior, trait, condition, or environmental exposure that increases an individual's likelihood of developing a disease, injury, or negative health condition.

Outline the risk factors for heart disease?

Heart disease risk factors include smoking, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, obesity, and diabetes.

Why does alcohol in the blood increase the chance of having an accident?

It increases the time taken to react.

Alcohol is absorbed into the bloodstream from the stomach.Digested food is absorbed into the blood from a different part of the digestive system.

Give the name of this part?

Small intestine

Give the name of one organ that is damaged by drinking a lot of alcohol over a long period of time?

The liver

If a pregnant woman drinks large quantities of alcohol, the blood vessels in the umbilical cord may get very narrow for a while.

Give one way this could affect the foetus?

Can lead to intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), resulting in a low birth weight or smaller size. 

Alcohol is a drug. Which property makes alcohol a drug?

It affects the nervous system.

What’s the difference between communicable and non-communicable diseases?

Communicable diseases are infectious illnesses spread from person to person or via vectors (e.g., cold, malaria) caused by pathogens like bacteria or viruses. Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are chronic, non-infectious conditions such as cancer, diabetes or heart disease that can’t be spread, often caused by genetics, environment, or lifestyle. 

The larger the BMI, the greater the risk of — diabetes for male/female/both?

The larger the BMI, the greater the risk of Type 2 diabetes for male/female/both.

Obese/overweight — have a much greater risk of developing Type 2 diabetes than —?

Obese/overweight women have a much greater risk of developing Type 2 diabetes than men.

Chemicals/carcinogens/(malignant) cells are carried by the —/—?

Chemicals/carcinogens/(malignant) cells

are carried by the blood/lymph.

Diseases based on the health risks associated with factors like obesity, smoking, and high cholesterol?

• heart attack

• cardiovascular disease / CVD

• coronary heart disease / CHD

• arthritis

• high blood pressure

What causes less respiration of heart muscle cells?

Fatty material builds up in coronary arteries that reduce blood flow so less oxygen/glucose reaches the heart muscle / less respiration of heart muscle cells.

Cell division/growth of cells/cell multiplication/mitosis which is out of control/abnormal/uncontrolled are characteristics of what non-communicable disease?

Cancer

Why are chemicals (from smoke)/tar/carcinogens) more concentrated in the lungs?

Because smoke is inhaled/enters lungs first.

Describe why carcinogens and ionising radiation increase the risk of tumours?

By directly damaging cellular DNA, causing mutations in genes that regulate cell growth and division.

What are the risks and benefits of chemotherapy?

Offers benefits like shrinking tumors, slowing cancer growth, and preventing recurrence after surgery. However, risks include damage to healthy, fast-growing cells, causing side effects like severe fatigue, infection, nausea, hair loss, and mouth sores.

List the short and long term effects of drinking alcohol?

Drinking alcohol causes immediate, short-term effects like impaired judgment, reduced coordination, nausea, hangovers, and risk of injury, while long-term, heavy consumption leads to addiction, liver disease, cancer, cardiovascular issues, weakened immunity, and cognitive impairment. These risks stem from brain chemistry changes and damage to organs. 

Describe the link between ionising radiation and cancer?

Ionising radiation causes cancer by delivering high-energy particles or waves that damage DNA within cells. This damage creates mutations, and if repairs fail or are incorrect, it leads to cancer, typically appearing years or decades after exposure.

State two diseases that are linked to obesity(other than diabetes)?

1. Cardiovascular Disease (Heart Disease and Stroke): risk of high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and atherosclerosis (fatty deposits in arteries), which can lead to heart attacks/failure and strokes.

2. Osteoarthritis: increased stress on weight-bearing joints (such as the knees and hips), causing wear and tear on cartilage and leading to joint pain, stiffness, and reduced motion. 

State one risk factor that increases the likelihood of a person suffering from a heart or circulatory disorder?

Smoking

Coronary heart disease (CHD) can cause a heart attack. Explain what happens to the heart in CHD that can cause a heart attack?

A heart attack occurs when a plaque ruptures, causing a blood clot to form that completely blocks an artery, cutting off oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle.