1960-68 - African nationalist radicalisation

Factors in move to armed struggle

• Govt deceit (e.g., breaking gaurentee of immunity)

• Peaceful protect ineffective; suspension of arrests for not carrying passes BUT passes required for pensions (undermined pass protest)

• Final ANC protest in May 1961 failed - PAC refused to join, most stayed home

• Grassroots activists advocated for militancy (east Pondoland) → armed struggle would attract grassroots support

Umkhonto We Sizwe (MK)

• Co-founded by Mandela in 1961

• Used acts of sabotage on property (government instillations ect), THEn sought guerrilla warfare

• Bombing on covenant day (inc electrical substation) → 200 attacks in following 18 months

• Limited threats - increase support in rural areas/undermine white support for nats BUT amateur

Poqo

• Used terror and intimidation, targeted innocent whites (e.g., killed 2 in Paarl) and African policemen and chiefs considered collaborators

• Divided into cell, limited membership to Africans

• Argued among selves, infiltrated by secret police n 1964 - many arrested/executed

Mandela

• Went underground, nicknamed ‘black pimpernel’ (spent time in Rivonia farm owned by SACP, planned MK activities)

• Travelled around Africa and UK to seek support/funds BUT arrested on return to SA (traveling without passport) - sentenced for 5 years

• Security forces found Rivonia farm → Rivonia trial

• Used Rivonia trial to justify struggle (rather than plead innocent) → sentenced to life BUT bold anti-apartheid statement

• UN called f defendants’ release, Brezhnev, MPs and congressmen demanded lenience

Exile and imprisonment - foreign relations

• Tambo built ‘Charm offensive’ on London

• Sisulu → E Europe, delegates met Mao, USSR grants ($300,000 1963, $560,000 1965)

• Stasi interrogation training, Tanzania training camps BUT lack of Western/African pressure

Exile and imprisonment - ANC

• Lithuli house arrest, Tambo and Slovak exiled

• Bases in Tanzania and Mozambique, infiltration routes organised (w infrastructure to accommodate activists)

  BUT Sa surrounded by friendly counties to ANC (e.g., Rhodesia) - guerrilla warfare difficult

Exile and improvement - ZAPU

• ANC aligned with ZAPU in Rhodesia

• Fighters gained experience in wankie game reserve BUT at least 12 killed, ZAPU lost to Rhodesia (with SA govt support)

Exile and imprisonment - Morogoro conference 1969

• Re-emphasised importance of armed struggle in SA itself

• Clarified ANC-SACP relationship (ANC primacy BUT SACP uses contacts/military expertise)

• Created revolutionary council (oversaw military struggle, inc Slovo)

• Only blacks allowed to serve on NEC