Ap Psych Unit 5: Cognition

Cognition

The mental act of processing, understanding, and possibly communicating information.

Concepts

Mental groupings/categories.

Prototypes

The best example of a concept.

Creativity

Being able to create new and valuable items/ideas.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing information to determine one answer.

Divergent Thinking

Thinking in a different direction.

Algorithms

Every possible step is taken.

Insight

The light bulb just turns on, a realization.

Heuristics

Rules of thumb, shortcuts, trusted methods.

Representative Heuristic

Decide course of action, based on how close to a prototype the problem is.

Conjunction Fallacy

Pair two things together because they “seem'“ like they should be.

Availability Heuristic

What you are thinking about or know at the time dictates problem solving.

Fixation

Getting stuck in one way to solve problems.

Mental Set

Only repeating what worked in the past.

Functional Fixedness

Seeing an objects function as set and unchanging.

Heuristic Misuse

Shortcuts can lead to mistakes.

Framing

How a problem is presented has a huge effect on how we choose to solve it/deakl with it.

Belief Perseverance Phenomenon

Even with contradicting information, we cling to our beliefs.

Phonemes

Basic sounds necessary to a language.

Morphemes

Smallest unit of language with meaning.

Grammar

A system of rules for language.

Semantics

Meanings of words/language.

Syntax

Order of words in a sentence.

Babbling Stage

Variety of sounds made by babies (4 months).

One-Word Stage

One word/morpheme (1 year).

Two-Word Stage

Two word sentences, nouns and verbs (2 years).

• Telegraphic speech

B.F Skinner’s Theory

All language and grammar is learned.

Noam Chomsky’s Theory

Some language abilities are inborn and just need to be developed/fulfilled.

Linguistic Relativity/Linguistic Determanism

Our thoughts influence our speech and vice versa.

Visualization

Process where someone sees the solutions or imagines themselves doing something.

Memory

Learning that is held overtime through encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Sensory Memory

Very short and immediate memory.

Short Term/Working Memory

Active incoming and/or retrieved memories.

Long Term Memory

Where we keep everything we’ve retained (warehouse). She’s unlimited.

Encoding

Putting the information in there.

Storage

Information is retained/saved.

Retrieval

Information is brought back.

Flashbulb Memory

Clear/vivid memories of surprising and/or important events.

Hyperthymesia

Incredible autobiographical memory.

Mnemonists

Ability to remember incredibly long lists of items and information.

Automatic Processing

Encode information without trying.

Parallel Processing

Encode information while doing other things.

Effortful Processing

When something takes effort and attention to remember.

Rehearsal

Repeating or actively working with material.

Mnemonic Devices

Memory tricks/techniques.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Effortful Processing Researcher.

• List of nonsense syllables

Ebbinghaus Theories

a. Amount remembered depends on the time spent learning.

b. After learning, rehearsal increases retention.

c. Material immediately before or during sleep=no retention.

d. Learning/forgetting curve (learn/forget quickly).

Next-In-Line Effect

When you are part of a line/order of things your worst memory is of the person right next to you.

Spacing Effect

We retain information better when rehearsed over time.

Serial Position Effect

With a list of items, the first and last tend to be remembered much better than the middle items.

Primacy

First/early items are paid attention to.

Recency

Last/most recent items are paid attention to.

Self-Reference Effect

We remember personally meaningful things better.

Meaning/Semantic Encoding

Creating/using meaning seems to be the best memory tool.

• Ebbinghaus: Meaningful take 1/10 the effort.

• Deep processing

Imagery/Mental Pictures/Visual Info

It is easier to remember words that connect to images.

Method of Loci

Create a visual story to follow.

Peg-Word Systems

A system of words creates visuals.

Auditory

Remember a sound alone.

Chunking

Organize information into meaningful groupings.

Hierarchies

Divide information into groups and subgroups.

George Sperling

Sensory memory researcher (3×3 matrices).

Wilder Penfield

There is a single spot for memory.

Ralph Gerard

Memory is electrical.

Elizabeth Loftus

Memory is spread out in the brain.

Memory as Synaptic Change

Memory involves the connections between neurons.

Eric Kandel

Discovered memory as synaptic change. Bro worked with sea snails.

Long Term Potentiation (LTP)

Neural basic for learning and memory. How it sticks around.

Implicit/Procedural Memory

Memory of skills/movements/physical things.

Explicit/Declarative Memory

Memory of stories/facts/etc.

Episodic Memory

Memory of stories and events (an episode).

Cues

Guides/reminders that trigger a memory.

Priming

Multiple cues used to trigger a memory.

Context

Retrieval works better when in the same context as when the memory was encoded.

State Dependent Memory

You’re better at retrieving in the same state as when you encode.

Mood Congruent Memory

Emotion helps to trigger retrieval, because it played a role in encoding.

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve

Forgetting information suddenly, and what’s left is secure.

Interference

Our memory is impacted by competing information.

Proactive

Old information hurts/blocks encoding of new information.

Retroactive

New information hurts/blocks retrieval of old information.

Positive Transfers

Previous information helps form new memories.

Motivated Forgetting

We often revise our own memories (sometimes willingly, sometimes due to accepted misinformation).

Repression

Freudian defense mechanism where we try to forget/push stuff into the unconscious.

Misinformation Effect

Incorrectly filled in=misremembering.

Source Amnesia

We struggle to remember the source of a memory, so we claim it as our own.

Deja Vu

“I’ve had this happen before.”

Sir Francis Galton

English scientist that invented ways to measure people. No babies.

Eugenics

Have superior people mate, and inferior should avoid reproducing.

Alfred Binet

French psychologist that developed tests for schools to allow everyone to get an education.

Mental Age

Age that corresponds to performance level.

Lewis Terman

Stanford professor that gave IQ tests to less intelligent people. Racist.

Stanford-Binet Test

The first IQ test.

Aptitude Test

Predicts future ability/success.

Achievement Test

Reflects what you’ve learned.

WAIS-R

Wechsler adult intelligence test-revised.

General IQ Tests

Intended to give a general idea of how intelligent someone is.

3 Principles of Test Construction

Standardization, reliability, and validity.

Standardization

We define scores by comparing to others.

Flynn Effect

Intelligence scores are going up.

Normal/Bell Curve

68% within 1 standard deviation and 94% within 2 standard deviation.

Reliability

A test doesn’t have to be good, just consistent.