European Religious Wars, Exploration, and Colonial Empire

What significant event marked Vasco de Gama's exploration of India?

His first voyage to India in 1498.

What was the outcome of the Spanish-French wars that ended in 1559?

A Spanish victory, leading to various European wars centered on religious and national issues.

What were the main religious groups involved in the European wars during the Age of Expansion?

Protestants and Catholics.

What technological advancement influenced the size of armies in the religious wars?

The use of gunpowder.

What did the Peace of Westphalia (1648) achieve regarding religious wars?

It ended religious wars and the idea of a unified Christian society.

What was the Concordat of Bologna (1516)?

An agreement where Francis I recognized the papacy's supremacy in exchange for the right to appoint French bishops.

How did Francis I maintain control over the French church?

By appointing bishops and keeping the pope in power.

Who were the Huguenots?

French Calvinists.

What was the significance of Henry IV's Edict of Nantes (1598)?

It allowed Huguenots to worship and helped save France from further civil war.

What was the impact of the Saint-Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572?

It symbolized the deep hatred between Catholics and Calvinists and led to the War of the Three Henrys.

What was the role of Catherine de Medici during the reign of Henry III?

She dominated French policy while Henry III was involved with his male favorites.

What led to the revolt in the Netherlands (1556-1587)?

Regent Margaret's attempts to destroy Protestantism and raised taxes.

What was the economic capital of the Netherlands during the revolt?

Amsterdam.

What was the outcome of the revolt in the Netherlands?

The Low Countries were split into the Spanish Netherlands in the south and the independent United Provinces of the Netherlands in the north.

Who was the duke of Alva and what was his role in the Netherlands?

He was sent by Philip II to crush disturbances, but his brutal actions inflamed the religious war.

What was the Union of Utrecht?

A coalition formed in 1581 to unite the northern provinces against Spanish rule.

What was the primary religion in the northern provinces of the Netherlands after the revolt?

Protestantism.

How did the French kings, such as Francis I and Henry II, affect the nobility's power?

They centralized power, leading to a decline in the nobility's influence.

What was the financial strategy used by Francis I to raise money?

He sold public offices and signed the Concordat of Bologna.

What was the significance of the Habsburg-Valois wars for France?

They were costly conflicts that drained resources and contributed to the centralization of power.

What was the general attitude of society towards religious passions during the wars?

Religious passions conditioned the mind-sets of all elements of society.

What role did propaganda play during the religious wars?

Governments used propaganda, including the printing press, to arouse public opinion.

What was the result of the religious riots and civil war in France from 1559 to 1589?

They highlighted the struggle for power among the nobility and serious religious concerns among the lower classes.

What was the religious affiliation of the north and south regions during the conflicts in the Low Countries?

The north was Protestant and ruled by the commercial aristocracy, while the south was Catholic and ruled by the landed nobility.

Who supported the Protestant cause in the Netherlands and why?

Elizabeth I of England supported the Protestant cause as a safeguard against Spain attacking England.

Who was William of Orange and what was his significance in the conflict against Philip II?

William of Orange revolted against Philip II, was excommunicated, and played a key role in the Dutch struggle for independence.

What were the economic ties between England and the Dutch during the conflict?

England had economic ties with the Dutch, which led them to support the Protestant cause.

What was the outcome of the Thirty Years' War for France and Germany?

France emerged as the biggest winner, while Germany was the biggest loser.

What were the consequences of the murder of William the Silent for Elizabeth I?

The murder convinced Elizabeth to enter the war on the Protestant side.

What was Philip II of Spain's primary residence and his approach to governance?

Philip II lived at the Escorial monastery, where he spent much time in prayer and believed the state should not dictate morals.

What was Philip II's stance on religious toleration?

He did not believe in religious toleration.

What hindered Philip II's efforts to crush the Protestant cause?

He was preoccupied with the administration of his vast empire.

What was Philip II's plan regarding England and how was it affected?

He planned to invade England to keep it Catholic, but his ill health and fear of Turkish attack hindered this plan.

What was the significance of the Spanish Armada in 1588?

The destruction of the Spanish Armada did not end the war but prevented Philip from unifying western Europe.

What agreement did Philip III reach in 1609 regarding the United Provinces?

He agreed to a truce recognizing the independence of the United Provinces.

What were the four phases of the Thirty Years' War?

1. Bohemian phase (1618-1625), 2. Danish phase (1625-1629), 3. Swedish phase (1630-1635), 4. French phase (1635-1648).

What characterized the Bohemian phase of the Thirty Years' War?

It was marked by civil war between the Catholic League and the Protestant Union, with the Bohemians fighting for religious liberty.

What was the outcome of the Danish phase of the Thirty Years' War?

It led to further Catholic victories.

What was the result of the Swedish phase of the Thirty Years' War?

It ended the Habsburg plan to unite Germany.

What did the Peace of Westphalia accomplish?

It recognized the independent authority of German princes and ended the Thirty Years' War.

What were the economic consequences of the Thirty Years' War for Germany?

The war was economically disastrous, leading to agricultural depression and a return to serfdom for many peasants.

What was the Age of Discovery and its time frame?

The Age of Discovery, from 1450 to 1650, marked European mastery of ocean travel and expansion.

What were the primary motives for explorers during the Age of Discovery?

Explorers sought God, Glory, and Gold.

How did the presence of the Ottoman Turks influence European exploration?

The Ottoman Turks frightened Europeans and shifted their attention westward for exploration.

What role did Prince Henry the Navigator play in Portuguese exploration?

He led Portugal's exploration efforts, pushing south from North Africa.

What technological advancements aided European expansion during the Age of Discovery?

The development of the cannon, caravel ships, the magnetic compass, and the astrolabe aided exploration.

What was a central motive for European expansion during the Age of Exploration?

The desire to Christianize Muslims and pagan peoples.

Who was the first European to reach India by sea?

Vasco de Gama in 1498.

What was the economic motive behind European exploration?

The quest for material profit.

What significant impact did Columbus have on indigenous populations?

He enslaved and killed many Indians, leading to a drastic decline in their populations.

What was Columbus's principal objective in his voyages?

To find a direct route to Asia.

What was the fate of the Indian population on Hispaniola after Spanish colonization?

The population declined from 100,000 to 300 due to exploitation.

What did Magellan prove during his voyage for Charles V of Spain?

He proved that the earth was round and larger than Columbus had estimated.

What empire did Cortés conquer, and what city did he establish?

Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire and founded Mexico City.

What was the significance of the Potosí mines?

They became the richest silver mines in the New World.

What role did the Dutch East India Company play in European imperialism?

It became the major organ of Dutch imperialism.

What economic effects did Spain's discoveries in the New World have on its economy?

Enormous amounts of gold and silver poured into Spain, contributing to inflation.

How did European inflation impact the poor in Spain?

It hurt the poor the most.

How was Spanish colonial administration structured in the New World?

The Spanish monarch divided the New World into four viceroyalties, each with a viceroy and an audiencia.

What was the quinto in Spanish colonial policy?

It was the Crown's claim to one fifth of all precious metals mined in South America.

What was a unique feature of colonial Brazil regarding its population?

There was a thorough mixture of races.

What were the effects of religious wars during the Age of Exploration?

They bred confusion, uncertainty, and insecurity, leading to modern forms of sexism, racism, and skepticism.

What societal changes occurred regarding the status of women during this period?

The status of women declined, with literature promoting the idea of a subservient wife.

What was the impact of Portuguese mercantilist policies on Brazil's growth?

They constrained Brazil's growth, although black slave labor led to the cultivation of coffee, cotton, and sugar.

What was the relationship between the crowns of Portugal and Spain in 1580?

The crowns became one, leading to the introduction of Spanish administrative forms in Portugal.

What was the role of intendants in Spanish colonial administration?

Intendants were royal officials responsible directly to the monarch.

What was the primary purpose of colonies according to mercantilist principles?

Colonies existed for the financial benefit of the mother country.

What did the exploration and colonization efforts reveal about European attitudes towards indigenous peoples?

They often viewed indigenous peoples as obstacles to be exploited or eliminated.

What was the significance of the Union of Utrecht in relation to trade?

It marked a shift in trade centers from medieval cities like Antwerp to Amsterdam.

What was the impact of the Spanish exploitation in the Caribbean?

It led to the destruction of the indigenous population and reliance on imported labor.

What was the belief about witches during the European witch hunts?

A witch was defined as a person who worked for the devil and could mysteriously injure others or animals.

What societal issues did witch hunting reflect?

Witch hunting reflects widespread misogyny and a misunderstanding of women.

What was the impact of the Protestant Reformation on women's status?

Protestants held that divorce and remarriage were possible, but women's subordinate status did not change.

How did Elizabeth Hardwick's success in real estate illustrate women's roles?

Her success illustrates that some women became rich and powerful despite societal constraints.

What was the role of convents according to Protestant reformers?

Protestant reformers believed that convents were anti-feminist and that women would find freedom in marriage and sex.

What was the significance of the Treaty of Tordesillas?

It divided the New World between Spain and Portugal, giving Spain everything west of an imaginary line and Portugal everything to the east.

What was the Encomienda System?

A system where the Spanish crown granted conquerors the right to forcibly employ Native Americans for agricultural labor in exchange for food, shelter, and Christian teaching.

What were the Viceroyalties in the Spanish Americas?

The four administrative units of Spanish possessions in the Americas: New Spain, Peru, New Granada, and La Plata.

What was the role of the Viceroy?

The Viceroy was the governor of a viceroyalty.

What was the Audiencia?

The highest judicial body and advisory board for the viceroy, consisting of 12-15 people.

What led to the rise of black slavery in the Americas?

Black slavery originated with the end of white slavery and the need for labor in sugar-producing settlements.

Who promoted the importation of African slaves to America?

The missionary Bartolomé de las Casas promoted the importation of African slaves to replace Indian slavery.

What attitudes did European settlers bring to the Americas regarding race?

Settlers brought racial attitudes from Europe that depicted blacks as primitive and inferior.

What was Montaigne's contribution to modern skepticism?

Montaigne's essays advocated open-mindedness, tolerance, and rejection of dogmatism, inaugurating an era of doubt.

How did Shakespeare's works reflect human psychology?

Shakespeare's understanding of human psychology was rooted in classical culture, individualism, and humanism.

What themes are explored in Shakespeare's tragedies?

Themes such as ambition, sin, and revenge are explored in his tragedies like Hamlet, Othello, and Macbeth.

What is the significance of the King James Bible?

The King James Bible is a masterpiece of English vernacular writing.

What characterized Baroque art and music?

Baroque art was emotional and exuberant, intended to appeal to the senses, while Baroque music reached its culmination with Bach.

What was the impact of the closing of convents on upper-class Protestant women?

With the closing of convents, marriage became virtually the only occupation for upper-class Protestant women.

What was the role of Peter Paul Rubens in Baroque art?

Rubens developed a sensuous, colorful style of painting characterized by animated figures and monumental size.

What were the main motivations for European exploration during the Age of Discovery?

The motivations included the desire for wealth, power, and the spread of Christianity.

What was the significance of the witch hunts in the context of religious conflict?

Witch hunts were conducted by both Protestants and Catholics, reflecting the extreme religious thought of the time.

What was the historical context of the Reconquista?

The Reconquista involved Christian kingdoms retaking land from Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula.