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Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
Wrote On The Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543); theorized that the sun, rather than the earth, was the center of the universe
Paracelsus (1493-1541)
Swiss physician and alchemist who pioneered the use of chemicals to address illness
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)
Wrote On the Structure of the Human Body (1543)
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
Built observatory and recorded data on planetary motions
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
Advocated experimental method, formalizing theory of inductive reasoning known as empiricism
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Used telescopic observation to provide evidence for Copernican hypothesis
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Used Brahe’s data to provide mathematical support for the Copernican hypothesis; his new laws of planetary motion united for the first time natural philosophy and mathematics; completed the Rudolphine Tables in 1627
William Harvey (1578-1657)
Discovered the circulation of the blood (1628)
René Descartes (1596-1650)
Used deductive reasoning to formulate the theory of Cartesian dualism
Robert Boyle (1627-1691)
Formulated Boyle’s law (1662) governing the pressure of gases
Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
Published the Principia Mathematica (1687); set forth the law of universal gravitation, synthesizing previous theories of motion and matter
Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)
Early Enlightenment thinker excommunicated from the Jewish religion for his concept of a deterministic universe
John Locke (1632-1704)
Essay Concerning Human Unterstanding (1690)
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716)
German philosopher and mathematician known for his optimistic view of the universe
Pierre Bayle (1647-1706)
Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697)
Montesquieu (1689-1755)
The Persian Letters (1721); The Spirit of Laws (1748)
Voltaire (1694-1778)
Renowned French philsophe and author of more than seventy works
David Hume (1711-1776)
Central figure of the Scottish Enlightenment; Of Natural Characters (1748)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
The Social Contract (1762)
Denis Diderot (1713-1784) and Jean le Rond d’Alembert (1717-1783)
Editors of Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts (1751-1766)
Adam Smith (1723-1790)
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776)
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
What is Enlightenment? (1784); On the Different Races of Man (1775)
Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786)
Major philosopher of the Haskalah, or Jewish Enlightenment
Cesare Beccaria (1738-1994)
On Crimes and Punishments (1764)
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