AP Psychology Vocabulary

structuralism

the aim to discover the structural elements of the mind

introspection

engaging people in self-reflection

“tabula rasa”

the argument that the mind at birth is a “blank slate” on which experience writes (nurture)

functionalism

early school of thought that explored how mental and behaviors processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological and social-cultural levels of analysis

behavioral approach

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

biological (biomedical) approach

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neutral, hormonal) and psychological processes

cognitive approach

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

evolutionary approach

the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection

psychodynamic approach

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

social-cultural approach

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

humanistic approach

how we meet our needs for love and acceptance and achieve self-fulfillment

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

overconfidence

when humans tend to think they know more than they do

scientific method

a self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observation and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

a testable prediction often implied by a theory

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

descriptive methods

describe behaviors, often by using case studies, surveys or naturalistic observations

correlational methods

associate different factors, or variables

experimental methods

manipulative variables to discover their effects

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and cirumstances

case study

a descriptive technique in which on individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations with trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

sampling bias

a flawed sampling processes that produces an unrepresentative sample

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.0 to 1.0)

negative correlation

two sets of scores relate inversely

positive correlation

two sets of scores tend to rise or fall together

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship when on does not exist

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulation one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between the different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups

measure of central tendency

a single score that represents a whole set of scores (mean, median, mode)

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

range

a measure of variation; the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a measure of variation; a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

normal curve (normal distribution)

a symmetric, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (approximately 68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

statistical significance

the observed difference is probably not due to chance variation between the samples

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

p-value

gives the probability that the results of the study are due to chance, or coincidence (must be 5% or less for it to be considered “statistically significant”)

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

dendrites

a neuron’s bushy, branching extensions that receive message and conduct impulse toward the cell body

axon

the neuron extension that passes a message through its branches to other neurons or to other muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons or to muscles or glands

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electric charge that travels down an axon

resting potential

positive-outside/negative-inside state

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

all-or-nothing response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

synaptic gap (synaptic cleft)

the tiny gap at the synapse

neurotransmitter

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons; when released by the sending neuron, they travel across he synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

aceylcholine (ACh)

a neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory; undersupply linked to Alzheimer’s disease

dopamine

a neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion; oversupply linked to schizophrenia, undersupply linked to Parkinson’s disease

serotonin

a neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; undersupply linked to depression

norepinephrine

a neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal; controls body’s fight-or-flight response; undersupply can depress mood

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter; undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

glutamate

a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory; oversupply linked to migraines and seizures

endorphins

“morphine within” - natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure

agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, simulates a response

antagonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response

nervous system

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing info from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system (skeletal nervous system)

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart)

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus

endocrine system

the body’s “slow chemical communication system”; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidney and secret hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that helps arouse the body in times of stress; controls “flight or flight” response

pituitary gland

the endocrine system’s most influential gland under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

electroencephalogram (EEG)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface

CT (computed tomography) scan

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft-tissue

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing (keeps us alive)