AP Psych Unit 5

Learning & Memory

Learning

The process of acquiring knowledge and skills through experience.

John Watson

A major figure in behaviorism known for his work on classical conditioning.

Pavlov

Russian doctor who discovered the principles of classical conditioning through experiments with dogs.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

An automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior conditioning.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has been conditioned.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, triggers a conditioned response.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning when a response is established.

Extinction

The diminishment of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of absence.

Generalization

The tendency of a conditioned response to occur in response to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli.

Law of Effect

The principle that responses followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to occur again.

Shaping

Gradually guiding behavior closer to a desired goal through reinforcement.

Primary Reinforcement

Reinforcement that satisfies a biological need.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior only part of the time, resulting in slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement after a specific number of responses.

Variable Ratio

Reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed Interval

Reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has passed.

Variable Interval

Reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Cognitive Map

Mental representation of one's environment.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others rather than through direct experience.

Modeling

The process of learning behaviors by watching others.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that fire both when we act and when we observe the same action performed by another.

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding

The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing into awareness information stored in memory.

Recall

Retrieving information that is not in conscious awareness.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information.

Relearning

Learning something more quickly the second time that it is learned.

Echoic Memory

A brief memory of auditory stimuli.

Short-Term Memory

Memory that holds a few items briefly before information is stored or forgotten.

Working Memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on active processing.

Chunking

Organizing information into meaningful units for easier processing.

Mnemonics

Memory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Levels of Processing

Theory that deeper levels of processing result in more durable memory.

Shallow Processing

Basic encoding based on the surface features of information.

Deep Processing

Encoding based on the meaning of the information, leading to better retention.

Explicit Memory (declarative)

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know.

Implicit Memory (non-declarative)

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection.

Long-Term Memory

The relatively permanent and unlimited storage of information.

Frontal Lobes

Brain regions involved in processing explicit memories.

Hippocampus

A brain structure associated with the processing of explicit memories.

Cerebellum

A brain structure involved in implicit memory and conditioning.

Amygdala

A brain area that processes emotions and emotional memories.

Flashbulb Memory

A vivid and detailed memory of an emotionally significant event.

Long-Term Potentiation

A lasting increase in synaptic strength following high-frequency stimulation.

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that help in the recall of memories.

Context-Dependent Memory

The improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.

Forgetting

The inability to retrieve information from long-term memory.

Interference

The phenomenon where one memory competes with another memory, leading to forgetting.

Misinformation Effect

When a person's recall of episodic memories is less accurate due to the inclusion of misleading information.

Source Amnesia

Attributing an event to the wrong source, leading to false memories.

Repressed Memories

Memories that have been unconsciously blocked due to their emotional content.

Active Retrieval Cues

Techniques to enhance memory recall by linking one thought to another.

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

A graph that depicts the decline of memory retention over time.

Memory Construction

The process by which memories are influenced by cognitive processes and external factors.

Neurological Basis of Memory

The structures and processes in the brain that are involved in storing and retrieving memories.

Conditioning

The process of behavior modification by the use of reinforcement and punishment.

Emotional Memory

Memories that are tied to significant emotional responses.

Memory Networks

Complex systems in the brain that connect related memories and information.

Schema

A cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information in the brain.

Insight Learning

A sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Associative Learning

Learning that involves linking two stimuli or events. Example: A dog learns to associate the sound of a bell with being fed.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences. Example: A child receives praise for completing homework, increasing the likelihood of future completion.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process that involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. Example: Pavlov's dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior. Example: Giving a child candy for cleaning their room.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior. Example: Using an umbrella to avoid getting wet while it rains.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others rather than through direct experience. Example: A child learns to tie their shoes by watching an adult do it.

Iconic Memory

A fleeting visual memory lasting less than a second. Example: The brief afterimage of an image you just looked at.

Echoic Memory

A brief memory of auditory stimuli. Example: Remembering a song after hearing it just once.

Semantic Memory

A type of explicit memory that involves the recall of facts and concepts. Example: Knowing that Paris is the capital of France.

Episodic Memory

A type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of specific events and experiences. Example: Remembering your 10th birthday party.

Priming

A technique whereby exposure to one stimulus influences a response to another stimulus. Example: Hearing the word 'yellow' may help you later recognize the word 'banana' more quickly.

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form new memories after an incident. Example: A person can no longer remember events that happen after a brain injury.

Retrograde Amnesia

The inability to retrieve memories formed before an incident. Example: A person forgets past events after a serious head injury.