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Learning
The process of acquiring knowledge and skills through experience.
John Watson
A major figure in behaviorism known for his work on classical conditioning.
Pavlov
Russian doctor who discovered the principles of classical conditioning through experiments with dogs.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
An automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior conditioning.
Conditioned Response (CR)
A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has been conditioned.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, triggers a conditioned response.
Acquisition
The initial stage of learning when a response is established.
Extinction
The diminishment of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of absence.
Generalization
The tendency of a conditioned response to occur in response to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Discrimination
The learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli.
Law of Effect
The principle that responses followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to occur again.
Shaping
Gradually guiding behavior closer to a desired goal through reinforcement.
Primary Reinforcement
Reinforcement that satisfies a biological need.
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.
Partial Reinforcement
Reinforcing a behavior only part of the time, resulting in slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.
Fixed Ratio
Reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement after a specific number of responses.
Variable Ratio
Reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed Interval
Reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has passed.
Variable Interval
Reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
Positive Punishment
Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior.
Negative Punishment
Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior.
Cognitive Map
Mental representation of one's environment.
Observational Learning
Learning by observing others rather than through direct experience.
Modeling
The process of learning behaviors by watching others.
Mirror Neurons
Neurons that fire both when we act and when we observe the same action performed by another.
Memory
The persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Encoding
The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.
Storage
The retention of encoded information over time.
Retrieval
The process of accessing and bringing into awareness information stored in memory.
Recall
Retrieving information that is not in conscious awareness.
Recognition
Identifying previously learned information.
Relearning
Learning something more quickly the second time that it is learned.
Echoic Memory
A brief memory of auditory stimuli.
Short-Term Memory
Memory that holds a few items briefly before information is stored or forgotten.
Working Memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on active processing.
Chunking
Organizing information into meaningful units for easier processing.
Mnemonics
Memory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
Levels of Processing
Theory that deeper levels of processing result in more durable memory.
Shallow Processing
Basic encoding based on the surface features of information.
Deep Processing
Encoding based on the meaning of the information, leading to better retention.
Explicit Memory (declarative)
Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know.
Implicit Memory (non-declarative)
Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection.
Long-Term Memory
The relatively permanent and unlimited storage of information.
Frontal Lobes
Brain regions involved in processing explicit memories.
Hippocampus
A brain structure associated with the processing of explicit memories.
Cerebellum
A brain structure involved in implicit memory and conditioning.
Amygdala
A brain area that processes emotions and emotional memories.
Flashbulb Memory
A vivid and detailed memory of an emotionally significant event.
Long-Term Potentiation
A lasting increase in synaptic strength following high-frequency stimulation.
Retrieval Cues
Stimuli that help in the recall of memories.
Context-Dependent Memory
The improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same.
Serial Position Effect
The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.
Forgetting
The inability to retrieve information from long-term memory.
Interference
The phenomenon where one memory competes with another memory, leading to forgetting.
Misinformation Effect
When a person's recall of episodic memories is less accurate due to the inclusion of misleading information.
Source Amnesia
Attributing an event to the wrong source, leading to false memories.
Repressed Memories
Memories that have been unconsciously blocked due to their emotional content.
Active Retrieval Cues
Techniques to enhance memory recall by linking one thought to another.
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
A graph that depicts the decline of memory retention over time.
Memory Construction
The process by which memories are influenced by cognitive processes and external factors.
Neurological Basis of Memory
The structures and processes in the brain that are involved in storing and retrieving memories.
Conditioning
The process of behavior modification by the use of reinforcement and punishment.
Emotional Memory
Memories that are tied to significant emotional responses.
Memory Networks
Complex systems in the brain that connect related memories and information.
Schema
A cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information in the brain.
Insight Learning
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Associative Learning
Learning that involves linking two stimuli or events. Example: A dog learns to associate the sound of a bell with being fed.
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences. Example: A child receives praise for completing homework, increasing the likelihood of future completion.
Classical Conditioning
A learning process that involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. Example: Pavlov's dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell.
Positive Reinforcement
Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior. Example: Giving a child candy for cleaning their room.
Negative Reinforcement
Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior. Example: Using an umbrella to avoid getting wet while it rains.
Observational Learning
Learning by observing others rather than through direct experience. Example: A child learns to tie their shoes by watching an adult do it.
Iconic Memory
A fleeting visual memory lasting less than a second. Example: The brief afterimage of an image you just looked at.
Echoic Memory
A brief memory of auditory stimuli. Example: Remembering a song after hearing it just once.
Semantic Memory
A type of explicit memory that involves the recall of facts and concepts. Example: Knowing that Paris is the capital of France.
Episodic Memory
A type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of specific events and experiences. Example: Remembering your 10th birthday party.
Priming
A technique whereby exposure to one stimulus influences a response to another stimulus. Example: Hearing the word 'yellow' may help you later recognize the word 'banana' more quickly.
Anterograde Amnesia
The inability to form new memories after an incident. Example: A person can no longer remember events that happen after a brain injury.
Retrograde Amnesia
The inability to retrieve memories formed before an incident. Example: A person forgets past events after a serious head injury.
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