AP Psych Unit 2 Part 1: Cognition

Selective Attention

Bottleneck Theories of Selective Attention: We have a limited capacity to attend to stimuli. There is no limit to how much stimulation can be present. Selective Attention allows us to select what to attend to

Cocktail Party Phenomenon 

The ability to focus one's listening attention on a single talker among a mixture of conversations and background noises, ignoring other conversations. Then if someone over the other side of the party room calls out our name suddenly, we also notice that sound and respond to it immediately.

Inattentional Blindness

Not seeing objects when our attention is directed elsewhere. The focus on one detail makes us miss other obvious details

Change blindness

Not noticing changes in the environment.

Bottom-up Processing (Simplistic Processing)

A progression from individual elements to the whole. Also called data-driven processing. Perception must be largely data-driven because it must accurately reflect events in the outside world. The information is determined mainly be information from the senses (not from your expectations)

Top-Down Processing (Complex Processing)

A progression from the whole to the elements. Also known as schema-driven processing. In many situations your knowledge or expectations (or schemas) will influence your perception. In this case a schema is a pattern formed earlier in your experiences. Top-down occurs when a higher level concept influences your interpretation of lower level data. Set or expectancy demonstrate top-down processing

Principles of Perceptual Organization: Figure Ground

Visual image on what is in the front (figure) or in the background (ground)

List the Gestalt Principles of Grouping

Proximity, Similarity, Continuity

Gestalt Principles of Grouping: Proximity

Objects close together are perceived as being in the same group

Gestalt Principles of Grouping: Similarity

Similar in appearance seen as being in the same group

Gestalt Principles of Grouping: Continuity

Arranged in a continuous line appear to be in the same group 

Gestalt Principles of Grouping: Closure

Similar to top down processing. Objects in a recognizable image are like to be perceived as belonging even if there are gaps the mind has to close

Perception of Depth and Distance

Use this to see how near or far objects are. Without it the world would be seen as flat or 2 dimensional

Visual Cliff study by Eleanor Gibson

See if a child will crawl over a cliff (glass table) to see if a child as acquired depth perception

List and Explain Monocular Cues: Linear, Interposition, Texture Gradient

Depth cues that do not depend on 2 eyes

Linear cues: Lines drawn like a railroad track

Interposition: Objects that block the view to other objects must be closer

Texture Gradient: Details in texture close to us but not far away

List and Explain Binocular Cues: Retinal Disparity

Depth cues that depend on having 2 eyes

Retinal Disparity (binocular disparity): Left and right fields of vision provide slightly different visual images when focusing on a single object. Used for depth and distance

Perception of Motion: Stroboscopic Effect

Flip book effect where still images appear to move

Perception of Motion: Phi Phenomenon

Light Bulbs appear to be moving like Christmas lights

Perception of Motion: Autokinetic Effect

Spotlight on a wall that appears to move when you stare long enough

Perceptual Set

Predisposition to perceive things in a certain way. Expectation to see items one way. Involves top down processing and cues

Perceptual Constancy: Size

Objects closer to our eyes produce a bigger image to our retina, but we use knowledge of the object to keep size constant

Perceptual Constancy: Shape

Objects viewed from different angles produce different shapes on the retina, use knowledge to keep the shape constant

Perceptual Constancy: Brightness

Perceive as a constant color even as light reflects off the object changes (daylight, bright lights, etc)

Natural Concepts

Mental classifications from our lives. Not precise. Create prototypes (ideal image). How we view the world individually.

Artificial Concepts

Set rules: Dictionary, Math rules, Science rules

Metacognition

Thinking about thinking: When we review how we did on something and reflect on our progress

Prototype

Images of what best fits categories

Schema

Concepts to organize and interpret information. Based on what we think things are like in the world

Perceptual Set

Predisposition to see things a certain way 

Trial and Error

Try it until you get it

Intuition

Understanding something without conscious awareness: Gut feeling

Framing Problems

How a problem is presented can alter your perception

Bias

Can be done in a way to negatively or positively impact your thinking: “90% of people saw success”, “Order now before it’s all gone”

Algorithms

Step by step procedures that guarantee a solution, but time consuming

Heuristics

Simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgments and solve efficiently. Quicker than algorithms, but can produce more errors

Availability Heuristic

Bases our judgments on how mentally available info is. “pop into mind” quickly. Recency, vividness and distinctiveness can increase the chances. Fresh in mind so influences how we feel

Representative Heuristics

Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match prototypes (stereotype, or based on past experiences.

Ex. A man w/ a smoking pipe, has a book w/ him, and a beard. Is he more likely to be a truck driver or a professor

Heuristic error! Is a truck driver because there are more people employed in that profession

Insight

Sudden realization of a solution. Frontal lobe is for focused attention and then right temporal lobe would flash on an MRI

Working Backward

Backward working to find the solution to the problem. Know the answer figure out the path to get to it

Confirmation Bias

Type of cognitive bias in which people tend to seek out info which agrees w/ previously held beliefs. Give more weight to info which supports their beliefs, while discarding contradictory information

• Curses / Good luck charms

• Conspiracy theories

• Lunar effect

• Astrology

• “Alternative” health practices

• ESP

Fixation

The inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective.

Functional Fixedness (Love to test on this)

Tendency to view physical objects in terms of their traditional uses

Mental Set

Tendency to use past successful or unsuccessful solutions when faced with a new problem

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge or judgments. Think a paper will only take a few hours when it takes a few days. We don’t learn much from these mistakes

Belief perseverance

Sticking to our initial bias even after it’s been shown to be incorrect. Creates social conflict. Hard to get people to change their minds even when presented w/ evidence

Gambler’s Fallacy

The mistaken belief that the likelihood of a random event is influenced by previous outcomes. People assume that is something happens frequently in the past, it will occur less frequently in the future.

Sunk Cost Fallacy

Tendency to continue investing time, money, or effort into something simply because you’ve already invested in it, even when it would be better to stop.

Study Guide Term Summary

Research Methods Questions

Research methods in psychology include descriptive, correlational, and experimental approaches, each with distinct benefits and limitations. Experimental methods focus on causation, utilizing independent and dependent variables. Descriptive methods involve case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation, while correlational studies look at relationships between variables without determining causation.

Perceptual Set

Perceptual set refers to a predisposition to perceive things a certain way based on expectations or prior experiences. This “readiness to perceive” can influence how we interpret ambiguous stimuli, often leading us to see what we expect rather than what is objectively there.

Mental Set

A mental set is the tendency to approach problems using solutions that have worked previously. This can limit creative problem-solving by encouraging reliance on familiar methods, which may not be effective for new or unique challenges.

Schemas

Schemas are cognitive frameworks that help us organize and interpret information. These mental structures are based on past experiences and can affect perception, memory, and judgment, guiding us in understanding and predicting the world.

Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing

Bottom-up processing is when perception begins with sensory input and builds up to a final representation, relying heavily on sensory data. Top-down processing involves using prior knowledge, context, and experience to interpret sensory information, affecting how we perceive objects and situations.

Attention Types

Different types of attention include selective attention (focusing on one stimulus), divided attention (multi-tasking across several stimuli), and sustained attention (maintaining focus over time). Each type has distinct implications for cognitive load and information processing.

Size, Color, and Shape Constancy, Perceptual Constancy

Perceptual constancy refers to our ability to perceive objects as unchanging in size, color, or shape, despite changes in perspective, lighting, or distance. For example, size constancy allows us to recognize a car as the same size, whether it's nearby or far away.

Depth and Distance Perception

Depth and distance perception help us judge spatial relationships and navigate the world. Depth cues give us information about an object’s distance, helping us perceive a three-dimensional world accurately.

Monocular and Binocular Cues

Monocular cues (available to one eye) and binocular cues (requiring both eyes) provide information about depth and distance. Monocular cues include linear perspective and interposition, while binocular cues rely on retinal disparity and convergence.

Gestalt Principles of Grouping

Gestalt principles describe how we naturally group visual elements, helping us make sense of complex stimuli. These principles include proximity (grouping nearby items), similarity (grouping similar items), continuity, and closure (filling in gaps to create a whole).

Priming

Priming occurs when exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another, often related stimulus. For example, hearing a related word can make you recognize or respond to another word faster.

Inattentional Blindness

Inattentional blindness is the failure to notice an unexpected object or event when focused on another task. This phenomenon shows how selective attention can limit our awareness of the full visual field.

Insight

Insight is a sudden realization of a problem's solution, often described as an "aha" moment. This process involves a restructuring of mental representations and can lead to novel problem-solving.

Accommodation and Assimilation

In cognitive development, assimilation involves incorporating new information into existing schemas, while accommodation requires modifying schemas when new information doesn’t fit.

Heuristics

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making, often leading to quick, though sometimes inaccurate, judgments. Examples include the availability heuristic and representativeness heuristic.

Problem Solving

Problem-solving involves cognitive processes for finding solutions to challenges. Methods can include algorithms (step-by-step procedures), heuristics, and insight.

Algorithms

An algorithm is a systematic, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem if followed correctly.

Divergent and Convergent Thinking

Divergent thinking is a form of creativity that generates multiple potential solutions, while convergent thinking narrows down those options to the best solution.

Functional Fixedness

Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits the use of an object to its typical function, which can hinder problem-solving by preventing creative use of objects.

Hindsight Bias

Hindsight bias is the "I knew it all along" effect, where people believe they could have predicted an outcome after it has happened.

Confirmation Bias

Confirmation bias involves seeking information that confirms existing beliefs and ignoring contradictory evidence, impacting critical thinking and objective analysis.

Prototype

A prototype is the best or most typical example of a category. It helps us quickly categorize new information based on how closely it resembles the prototype.

Metacognition

Metacognition is the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, including the ability to monitor and regulate cognitive activities.

Overconfidence

Overconfidence is a bias in which people overestimate the accuracy of their knowledge or judgments, often leading to errors.

Gambler's Fallacy

The gambler's fallacy is the mistaken belief that future probabilities are altered by past events, such as thinking a coin is "due" for heads after multiple tails.

Sunk Cost Fallacy

The sunk cost fallacy is the tendency to continue an endeavor due to previously invested resources, even if it no longer makes rational sense. This bias highlights the impact of prior commitment on decision-making.