AP Psych Unit 4: Social Psychology

Attribution theory

Explains how individuals interpret events and how this relates to their thinking and behavior.

Fundamental attribution theory

Tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and downplay situational factors in judging others' behavior.

Actor-observer bias

Tendency to attribute our own actions to external factors while attributing others' actions to internal factors.

Self-serving bias

The tendency to take credit for positive outcomes and blame negative outcomes on external factors.

Social comparison

The process of evaluating ourselves in relation to others.

Relative deprivation

Feeling of discontent or resentment when comparing oneself to others who are perceived to have more.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

When a belief or expectation about a person leads to its own fulfillment.

Optimistic explanatory style

Tendency to explain positive events as being due to internal factors and negative events as external.

Pessimistic explanatory style

Tendency to explain negative events as being due to internal factors and positive events as external.

Internal locus of control

The belief that one is in control of their own life and outcomes.

External locus of control

The belief that external forces influence one’s life and outcomes.

Mere exposure effect

The phenomenon where repeated exposure to stimuli increases a person’s liking for it.

Prejudice

An unjustified negative attitude toward a group and its members.

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people.

Cognitive load

The total amount of mental effort used in working memory.

Discrimination

Negative actions toward a group or its members based on prejudice.

Implicit attitudes

Attitudes that are involuntarily formed and typically unbeknownst to us.

Just-world phenomenon

The belief that the world is fair and people get what they deserve.

Out-group homogeneity

The perception that members of an out-group are more similar to one another than members of the in-group.

In-group bias

The preference for one's own group over others.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one’s own culture is superior to others.

Belief perseverance

The tendency to maintain a belief even when evidence suggests it is wrong.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs.

Social norms

Expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior.

Normative social influence

Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

Informational social influence

Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality.

Elaboration likelihood model

A theory that suggests there are two routes to persuasion: central and peripheral.

Central route to persuasion

Involves being persuaded by the arguments or the content of the message.

Peripheral route to persuasion

Involves being persuaded in a manner not involving the contents of the message.

Halo effect

The tendency to let an overall impression of a person influence other evaluations of that person.

Foot-in-the-door

A compliance technique where a small request is followed by a larger request.

Door-in-the-face

A compliance technique where a large request is followed by a smaller, more reasonable request.

Conformity

Changing one's behavior or beliefs to match those of others, often due to real or imagined group pressure.

Obedience

Following direct commands, usually from an authority figure.

Individualism

A cultural value that emphasizes personal goals and self-identity over group goals and social harmony.

Collectivism

A cultural value that emphasizes group goals and interdependence.

Multiculturalism

An educational philosophy that emphasizes the importance of recognizing and valuing diverse cultural perspectives.

Group polarization

The tendency for group discussion to amplify the group's initial leanings.

Groupthink

A mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Diffusion of responsibility

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to take action when in a group than when alone.

Social loafing

The tendency for individuals to put forth less effort in a group task than when working alone.

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Social facilitation

Improved performance on tasks in the presence of others.

False consensus effect

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

Superordinate goals

Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

Social trap

A situation in which conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

Industrial-organizational psychology

The application of psychological concepts to workplace environments to improve productivity and well-being.

Altruism

Selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Social debt

The expectation that individuals will repay others for their kindness or assistance.

Social responsibility norm

An expectation that people will help those needing help.

Social reciprocity norm

Expectation that people will help those who have helped them.

Bystander effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present.

Ego defense mechanism

Psychological strategies that the mind uses to protect itself from anxiety.

Projective tests

Psychological tests that reveal underlying motivations, feelings, and conflicts through responses to ambiguous stimuli.

Humanism

A psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person and the uniqueness of each individual.

Unconditional positive regard

Accepting and supporting a person regardless of what they say or do.

Self-actualizing tendency

The drive to realize one’s own potential and achieve personal growth.

Preconscious/unconscious mind

The levels of awareness in the mind, with the preconscious being accessible and the unconscious being hidden.

Social-cognitive theory

A theory of behavior change that emphasizes the interaction of personal factors, behavior, and the environment.

Reciprocal determinism

The idea that personal factors, behavior, and the environment influence each other.

Self-concept

The individual’s perception of themselves, including their traits and personality.

Self-efficacy

An individual's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations.

Self-esteem

One's overall subjective evaluation of their worth.

Trait theory

A theory of personality that focuses on the identification and measurement of specific personality traits.

Big 5 Traits

Five broad factors used to describe human personality – Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Personality inventories

Questionnaires used to measure various personality aspects.

Factor analysis

A statistical method used to identify clusters of related items on a test.

Drive reduction theory

A theory suggesting that motivation arises from the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs.

Homeostasis

The body's tendency to maintain a balanced internal state.

Arousal theory

The theory that humans are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal for performance.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A principle that suggests there is an optimal level of arousal for performance, beyond which performance declines.

Self-determination theory

A theory of motivation that emphasizes the role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivators.

Intrinsic motivation

The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake, for personal satisfaction.

Extrinsic motivation

The desire to perform a behavior to receive rewards or avoid punishment.

Incentive theory

The theory that behavior is motivated by the desire for rewards or incentives.

Instinct

A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

Lewin’s motivational conflict theory

Examines how individuals are motivated to make decisions between conflicting options.

Sensation seeking theory

The theory that individuals have varying levels of sensitivity to stimulation and seek out novel, exciting experiences.

Cognitive appraisal

The personal interpretation of a situation that ultimately influences emotional responses.

Facial-feedback hypothesis

The theory that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.

Broaden-and-build theory of emotion

Suggests that positive emotions broaden one's awareness and encourage novel, diverse thoughts and actions.