AP Psych Unit 4: Social Psychology

Attribution theory: Explains how individuals interpret events and how this relates to their thinking and behavior.

Fundamental attribution theory: Tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and downplay situational factors in judging others' behavior.

Actor-observer bias: Tendency to attribute our own actions to external factors while attributing others' actions to internal factors.

Self-serving bias: The tendency to take credit for positive outcomes and blame negative outcomes on external factors.

Social comparison: The process of evaluating ourselves in relation to others (upward: comparing to those better, downward: comparing to those worse).

Relative deprivation: Feeling of discontent or resentment when comparing oneself to others who are perceived to have more.

Self-fulfilling prophecy: When a belief or expectation about a person leads to its own fulfillment.

Optimistic explanatory style: Tendency to explain positive events as being due to internal factors and negative events as external.

Pessimistic explanatory style: Tendency to explain negative events as being due to internal factors and positive events as external.

Internal locus of control: The belief that one is in control of their own life and outcomes.

External locus of control: The belief that external forces influence one’s life and outcomes.

Mere exposure effect: The phenomenon where repeated exposure to stimuli increases a person’s liking for it.

Prejudice: An unjustified negative attitude toward a group and its members.

Stereotype: A generalized belief about a group of people.

Cognitive load: The total amount of mental effort used in working memory.

Discrimination: Negative actions toward a group or its members based on prejudice.

Implicit attitudes: Attitudes that are involuntarily formed and typically unbeknownst to us.

Just-world phenomenon: The belief that the world is fair and people get what they deserve.

Out-group homogeneity: The perception that members of an out-group are more similar to one another than members of the in-group.

In-group bias: The preference for one's own group over others.

Ethnocentrism: The belief that one’s own culture is superior to others.

Belief perseverance: The tendency to maintain a belief even when evidence suggests it is wrong.

Confirmation bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs.

Social norms: Expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior.

Normative social influence: Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

Informational social influence: Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality.

Elaboration likelihood model: A theory that suggests there are two routes to persuasion: central and peripheral.

Central route to persuasion: Involves being persuaded by the arguments or the content of the message.

Peripheral route to persuasion: Involves being persuaded in a manner not involving the contents of the message. Examples: attractiveness or credibility of the source.

Halo effect: The tendency to let an overall impression of a person influence other evaluations of that person.

Foot-in-the-door: A compliance technique where a small request is followed by a larger request.

Door-in-the-face: A compliance technique where a large request is followed by a smaller, more reasonable request.

Conformity: Changing one's behavior or beliefs to match those of others, often due to real or imagined group pressure.

Obedience: Following direct commands, usually from an authority figure.

Individualism: A cultural value that emphasizes personal goals and self-identity over group goals and social harmony.

Collectivism: A cultural value that emphasizes group goals and interdependence.

Multiculturalism: An educational philosophy that emphasizes the importance of recognizing and valuing diverse cultural perspectives.

Group polarization: The tendency for group discussion to amplify the group's initial leanings.

Groupthink: A mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Diffusion of responsibility: The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to take action when in a group than when alone.

Social loafing: The tendency for individuals to put forth less effort in a group task than when working alone.

Deindividuation: The loss of self-awareness and restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Social facilitation: Improved performance on tasks in the presence of others.

False consensus effect: The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

Superordinate goals: Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

Social trap: A situation in which conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

Industrial-organizational psychology: The application of psychological concepts to workplace environments to improve productivity and well-being.

Altruism: Selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Social debt: The expectation that individuals will repay others for their kindness or assistance.

Social responsibility norm: An expectation that people will help those needing help.

Social reciprocity norm: Expectation that people will help those who have helped them.

Bystander effect: The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present.

Ego defense mechanism: Psychological strategies (like repression, denial, etc.) that the mind uses to protect itself from anxiety.

Projective tests: Psychological tests that reveal underlying motivations, feelings, and conflicts through responses to ambiguous stimuli.

Humanism: A psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person and the uniqueness of each individual.

Unconditional positive regard: Accepting and supporting a person regardless of what they say or do.

Self-actualizing tendency: The drive to realize one’s own potential and achieve personal growth.

Preconscious/unconscious mind: The levels of awareness in the mind, with the preconscious being accessible and the unconscious being hidden.

Social-cognitive theory: A theory of behavior change that emphasizes the interaction of personal factors, behavior, and the environment.

Reciprocal determinism: The idea that personal factors, behavior, and the environment influence each other.

Self-concept: The individual’s perception of themselves, including their traits and personality.

Self-efficacy: An individual's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations.

Self-esteem: One's overall subjective evaluation of their worth.

Trait theory: A theory of personality that focuses on the identification and measurement of specific personality traits.

Big 5 Traits: Five broad factors that are used to describe human personality – Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Personality inventories: Questionnaires used to measure various personality aspects.

Factor analysis: A statistical method used to identify clusters of related items (factors) on a test.

Drive reduction theory: A theory suggesting that motivation arises from the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs.

Homeostasis: The body's tendency to maintain a balanced internal state.

Arousal theory: The theory that humans are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal for performance.

Yerkes-Dodson Law: A principle that suggests there is an optimal level of arousal for performance, beyond which performance declines.

Self-determination theory: A theory of motivation that emphasizes the role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivators.

Intrinsic motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake, for personal satisfaction.

Extrinsic motivation: The desire to perform a behavior to receive rewards or avoid punishment.

Incentive theory: The theory that behavior is motivated by the desire for rewards or incentives.

Instinct: A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

Lewin’s motivational conflict theory: Examines how individuals are motivated to make decisions between conflicting options, including approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-avoidance conflicts.

Sensation seeking theory: The theory that individuals have varying levels of sensitivity to stimulation and seek out novel, exciting experiences.

Cognitive appraisal: The personal interpretation of a situation that ultimately influences emotional responses.

Facial-feedback hypothesis: The theory that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.

Broaden-and-build theory of emotion: Suggests that positive emotions broaden one's awareness and encourage novel, diverse thoughts and actions.