practical 2 material

lumen

a cavity or hole inside to a tube, blood vessel or hollow organ.

• for example: the blood flows through the lumen of a blood vessel

acini

a small, ball-shaped cluster of secretory cells surrounding ducts.

duct

a tubular structure that transports secretions of a gland.These are comprised of simple cuboidal epithelium, arranged in a doughnut pattern

lobes

large, roundish projections or division of an organ. Lobes can be seen with the naked eye

Lobules

small divisions of the cells in an organ, forming a functional unit. These usually require a microscope to be seen.

serosa

very thin tunic made of simple squamous epithelium that surrounds the outside of the organ.

• hard to see because of how thin it is

• always present

muscularis externa

comprised of at least two layers of the smooth muscle

• outer: muscle fibers running longitudinally down the organ.

• inner:muscle fibers running circularly around the organ.

submucosa

empty looking tunic in most organs, containing only scattered nuclei, a few wavy collagen fibers and sometimes glandular tissue

mucosa

comprised of three layers

• outer: muscular mucosa

  • a thin layer of smooth muscle, usually quite distinct as a dark pink band

• middle: lamina propia

  • a loose matrix of cells and ground tissue

• inner: epithelium

  • which protects the organ from the contents in the lumen

order of the 4 layers of the alimentary canal

• external —> internal

  • serosa → muscularis externa → submucosa → mucosa > muscularis mucosa → lamina propia → epithelium

• internal —> external

  • epithelium → lamina propia → muscularis mucosa → mucosa → submucosa → muscularis externa → serosa

Homeostasis

by:

1. regulating the pH and concentration of ions and water in the various body fluids.

2. eliminating waste products of metabolism

nephrons

basic structural and functional unit of the kidney, contains two structures:

1. renal corpuscle

2. renal tubule

glomerulus

a tuft of capillaries in the renal corpuscle

• first step of blood filtration. blood gets filtered in this area at a rate of 120 ml/min

renal tubule composition

• proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)

• nephron loop (Loop of Henle)

• distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

tubular filtrate composition

similar to blood plasma EXCEPT that large molecules such as plasma proteins over 70,000 MW are excluded

unwanted substances

toxic by-products of metabolism and excess substances such as salt

• approximately 1ml of urine formed per minute

final urine composition

reflects the integrity of kidney function and changes in blood composition

urinalysis

an analysis of urine

phenylketonuria (PKU)

individuals with this disorder are genetically unable to metabolize phenylalanine.

phenylalanine accumulation

gets converted into phenylpyruvic acid which appears in urine

phenylketonuria + phenylalanine

can result in developmental delays, seizures, and intellectual impairments

diabetes mellitus

individuals with this disorder have either an imbalance or a deficit in the amount of insulin produced by the pancreas

ketones

fatty acid metabolites

• there is an increment on this when the sugars in the blood cannot be used as cellular fuel and therefore the body will utilize fat as an energy source.

what happens to blood pH when there is an increment of ketones?

it decreases

diabetes mellitus indicative

the presence of both glucose and ketones in the urine combined with a low urine pH

What is the Labstix Test?

a combined test of urinary pH, protein, glucose, ketones, and occult blood

normal values in a Labstix test

• pH - about 6 (can range from 4.5 to 8.0)

• protein - none or trace

• glucose - none

• ketones - none

• occult blood - none

usual urinary pH

around a pH of 6

acidic urine

1. diet rich in proteins

2. result from respiratory disorder, dehydration, or starvation.

alkaline urine

1. diet rich in citrus fruit an dairy

2. result from vomiting, urinary tract infections, or cystitis

proteinuria or albuminuria

the presence of protein in the urine

glycosuria

high glucose levels in urine

ketonuria

abnormally large amounts of ketone excretion

increased levels glucose in urine

indicative of diabetes mellitus

increased levels of ketone excretion

indicate diabetes or starvation

occult blood

blood not visible to the naked eye

blood in urine

indicates urinary tract infection, kidney stones, or cancerous cells

nephritis

a disease in which the glomeruli are damages and plasma proteins and erythrocytes leak into the nephrons, will have blood present in their urine as well as high levels of protein

kidneys main functions

• regulate the osmolarity of the body fluids at around 300 milliosmoles per liter

dehydrated individual

would produce a small amount of highly concentrated urine

overhydrated individual

would produce a large amount of minimally concentrated (diluted) urine

specific gravity

the ratio of the density of a substance compared to the density of distilled water

normal range of urine specfic gravity

1.0015 to 1.035

distilled water

water with no present solutes

chronic nephritis

• have low specific gravity reading

acute nephritis

• have high specific gravity reading

Mohr Method (NaCl)

the process of titrating silver nitrate to analyze the presence of chloride ions in a substance using potassium chromate as an indicator

Tidal volume (TV)

the amount of air inspired (inhaled) or expired (exhaled) during normal, quiet respiration

• about 500 ml of air moves into and out of the lungs with each breath.

• amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath under resting conditions

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

the amount of air which can be forcefully inspired (inhaled) above and beyond that taken in during a normal inspiration

• inspired (inhaled) forcibly beyond the tidal volume (2100 to 3200 ml)

• amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inspiration

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

the maximal amount of air which can be forcefully expired following a normal expiration

• the amount of air - normally 1000 to 1200 ml- that can be expelled (exhaled) from the lungs after a normal tidal volume expiration (exhalation)

• amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume expiration

Residual Volume (RV)

the amount of air which remains trapped in the lungs after a maximal expiratory effort

• about 1200 ml of air that remains in the lungs.

• amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration

capacities

combinations of two or more volumes

Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

the total amount of air the lungs can contain - the sum of all four volumes.

• ___ = TV + IRV + ERV + RV

Vital Capacity (VC)

The maximal amount of air that can be forcefully expired after a maximum inspiration

• ___ = TV + IRV + ERV

1. the soak amount of exchangeable air. The sum of TV, IRV, AND ERV.

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)

The amount of air remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration

• __ = RV + ERV

1. represents the amount of air remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal volume expiration and is the combined RV and ERV

Inspiratory Capacity (IC)

the maximal amount of air which can be inspired after a normal expiration

• __ = TV + IRV

1. The total amount of air that can be inspired after a normal tidal volume expiration, so it is the sum of TV and IRV

spirometry

pulmonary function tests; useful for evaluating changes in respiratory functions.

• can distinguish between restrictive diseases and obstructive pulmonary diseases.

restrictive diseases

diseases that affect the lungs capacity to expand

obstructive pulmonary diseases

diseases that cause the lungs to hyper inflate due to an increase in airway restriction

spirometer

the original clinical measuring tool, a cumbersome (large and/or heavy) instrument utilizing a hollow bell inverted over water.

Heymer Test of Respiratory Reserve

ADD

Poliomyelitis

a virus that infects an individual’s spinal cord and causes paralysis.

dry gas meter

meter that measures the volume of gas that passes through to and keeps a cumulative total.

• the gas that passed through the dry gas meter can also be collected in a bag and later analyzed for oxygen content.

metabolic rate

determined by calculating the difference between the percentage of oxygen in inhaled air (20.95%) and the percentage of oxygen in exhaled air (measured by the oxygen analyzer), and then multiplying this percentage difference to the volume of air breathed during a measured time span (measured by the dry gas meter)

• measured in ml of oxygen consumed/min)

ventilation

rate at which you obtain oxygen from the environment across the respiratory exchange surface of the lungs

• the amount of gas reaching the alveoli

perfusion

rate at which oxygen is extracted from the blood going through the capillaries of the metabolizing cells

• the blood low in pulmonary capillaries

ventilation-perfusion coupling

• process by which oxygen is delivered to the tissues of the body

• the relationship (exchange) between ventilation and perfusion

respiratory system

network of organs and tissues that help you breathe

circulatory system

pumps blood from the heart to the lungs to get oxygen

systemic venous blood/system?

brings deoxygenated blood from tissue and organs back to the right atrium of the heart.

cardiac output

in the circulatory system, the flow of blood

arterial (blood)

the oxygenated blood in the circulatory system found in the pulmonary vein, the left chambers of the heart, and in the arteries.

oxygen content

resting stroke volume (SV)

the difference between en-diastolic and end—systolic volumes

pulse pressure (PP)

the difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressures

the increase or decrease in the rhythm and rate of respirations is controlled by:

neural enters located in the medulla and pons

carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system

buffer used to maintain the pH homeostasis of blood.

chemoreceptors

sensors that respond to chemical fluctuations

hyperventilation

an increase in the rate and depth of breathing that exceeds the body’s need to remove carbon dioxide (CO2)

apnea

the temporary cessation of breathing

chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD)

irreversibly decreases an individual’s ability to force air out of the lungs

respiratory minute volume equation/Minute ventilation

____ (L/min) = Tidal Volume (TV) x Respiratory Rate (breaths/min)

• indicates the amount of air exchange per minute

• basically, the total amount of gas that flows into or out of the respiratory tract in 1 minute.

nomogram

often used in clinical settings to predict the probability of an event based on known relationships to best prescribe treatment and care.

• it is a graph

respiratory reserve

normal values for the Heymer Test of Respiratory Reserve

• men: 50-70 seconds

• women: 50-60 seconds

rate of oxygen consumption (Vo2)

equal to ventilation and perfusion

minute volume (Vm)

in the respiratory system, the flow of air

Co2i

concentrations of oxygen in the inspired air

Co2e

concentrations of oxygen in the exhaled air

Co2a

concentrations of oxygen in the systemic arterial blood

Co2v

concentrations of oxygen in the systemic venous blood

Vo2

metabolic rate during exercise

each gram of hemoglobin can bind with ______

1.34 ml of oxygen

asthma

the result of inflammation in the bronchioles reducing the amount of oxygen that can reach the aleveoli.

• considered reversible