AP Psychology Unit 4 Vocabulary

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

approach-approach

a psychological concept that describes a type of conflict that occurs when a person must choose between two desirable options

approach-avoidance

a psychological theory that describes how people react to stimuli that are both desirable and undesirable

arousal theory

A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation.

avoidance-avoidance

a psychological situation where a person must choose between two options that are both undesirable

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Big 5 Theory of Personality (OCEAN)

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

broaden-and-build theory of emotion

suggests that positive emotions expand an individual's momentary thought-action repertoire, allowing them to build personal resources like skills, knowledge, and social connections, ultimately leading to increased well-being and resilience over time

bystander effect

the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders

central route to persuasion

attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

cognitive appraisal

the process of subjectively interpreting an event or stimulus and responding to it

cognitive dissonance

an unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs

cognitive label

a type of cognitive distortion that involves applying a single characteristic to a whole person

collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

denial

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities.

diffusion of responsibility

reduction in sense of responsibility often felt by individuals in a group; may be responsible for the bystander effect

displacement

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

display rules

learned ways of controlling displays of emotion in social settings

dispositional attribution

attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits

door-in-the-face technique

persuasive technique involving making an unreasonably large request before making the small request we're hoping to have granted

drive-reduction theory

approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal

elicitors for emotional expression

stimuli that can trigger emotional responses

ethnocentrism

belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

facial expressions

facial gestures that convey emotions and attitudes

facial-feedback hypothesis

the idea that facial expressions influence a person's emotional state

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

foot-in-the-door technique

persuasive technique involving making a small request before making a bigger one

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

group polarization

tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

homeostasis

process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment

humanistic perspective psychology

focuses on the study of the whole person, their potential, and their ability to make choices

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

implicit attitudes

attitudes that influence a person's feelings and behavior at an unconscious level

in-group bias

the tendency to favor one's own group

incentive theory

A theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli.

individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

industrial-organizational psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

instincts

the biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Leptin

A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.

Lewin's Motivational Conflicts Theory

Describes various types of conflict involved in the decision making process. (i.e. approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance.)

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

multiculturalism

a condition in which ethnic groups exist separately and share equally in economic and political life

negative emotions

include anger, anxiety, fear, guilt, shame, sadness, envy, and disgust

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

obedience

changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure

optimistic explanatory style

accounting for negative events or situations with external, unstable, and specific explanations

out-group homogeneity bias

our tendency to see out-group members as being pretty much all alike

peripheral route to persuasion

attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

personality inventories

a questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits

pessimistic explanatory style

accounting for negative events or situations with internal, stable, and global explanations

physiological and cognitive experiences of emotion

the physical changes in your body like increased heart rate or sweating, and how you mentally interpret and label those physical sensations within the context of a situation

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

projection

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

projective tests

personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind

psychodynamic perspective

the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control

rationalization

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions.

reaction formation

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

reciprocal determinism

Bandura's idea that though our environment affects us, we also affect our environment

regression

psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

relative deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

repression

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

self-actualization tendency

the human motive toward realizing our inner potential

self-concept

our understanding and evaluation of who we are

self-determination theory

a theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation

self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

sensation seeking

the pursuit of experiences that are novel or exciting

situational attribution

attributing behavior to the environment

social comparison

evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

social loafing

the tendency for people to put less effort into a simple task when working with others on that task

social norms

expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior

social reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

sublimation

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people re-channel their unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities.

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

trait theories

Theoretical view stressing that personality consists of broad, enduring dispositions (traits) that tend to lead to characteristic responses.

unconditional positive regard

an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

unconscious processes

mental processes occurring outside of and not available to conscious awareness

universality of emotions

a widely accepted theory that six basic emotions are universal across cultures: happiness, surprise, fear, disgust, anger, and sadness

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases