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actor-observer bias
the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities
altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
approach-approach
a psychological concept that describes a type of conflict that occurs when a person must choose between two desirable options
approach-avoidance
a psychological theory that describes how people react to stimuli that are both desirable and undesirable
arousal theory
A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation.
avoidance-avoidance
a psychological situation where a person must choose between two options that are both undesirable
belief perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Big 5 Theory of Personality (OCEAN)
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
broaden-and-build theory of emotion
suggests that positive emotions expand an individual's momentary thought-action repertoire, allowing them to build personal resources like skills, knowledge, and social connections, ultimately leading to increased well-being and resilience over time
bystander effect
the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders
central route to persuasion
attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
cognitive appraisal
the process of subjectively interpreting an event or stimulus and responding to it
cognitive dissonance
an unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs
cognitive label
a type of cognitive distortion that involves applying a single characteristic to a whole person
collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
denial
psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities.
diffusion of responsibility
reduction in sense of responsibility often felt by individuals in a group; may be responsible for the bystander effect
displacement
psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet
display rules
learned ways of controlling displays of emotion in social settings
dispositional attribution
attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits
door-in-the-face technique
persuasive technique involving making an unreasonably large request before making the small request we're hoping to have granted
drive-reduction theory
approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal
elicitors for emotional expression
stimuli that can trigger emotional responses
ethnocentrism
belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
facial expressions
facial gestures that convey emotions and attitudes
facial-feedback hypothesis
the idea that facial expressions influence a person's emotional state
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.
false consensus effect
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
foot-in-the-door technique
persuasive technique involving making a small request before making a bigger one
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
Ghrelin
A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach
group polarization
tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
homeostasis
process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment
humanistic perspective psychology
focuses on the study of the whole person, their potential, and their ability to make choices
Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
implicit attitudes
attitudes that influence a person's feelings and behavior at an unconscious level
in-group bias
the tendency to favor one's own group
incentive theory
A theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli.
individualism
giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
industrial-organizational psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
informational social influence
influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality
instincts
the biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals
internal locus of control
the perception that you control your own fate
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
just-world phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
Leptin
A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.
Lewin's Motivational Conflicts Theory
Describes various types of conflict involved in the decision making process. (i.e. approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance.)
mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
multiculturalism
a condition in which ethnic groups exist separately and share equally in economic and political life
negative emotions
include anger, anxiety, fear, guilt, shame, sadness, envy, and disgust
normative social influence
influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
obedience
changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure
optimistic explanatory style
accounting for negative events or situations with external, unstable, and specific explanations
out-group homogeneity bias
our tendency to see out-group members as being pretty much all alike
peripheral route to persuasion
attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness
personality inventories
a questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits
pessimistic explanatory style
accounting for negative events or situations with internal, stable, and global explanations
physiological and cognitive experiences of emotion
the physical changes in your body like increased heart rate or sweating, and how you mentally interpret and label those physical sensations within the context of a situation
Pituitary Gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
projection
psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
projective tests
personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind
psychodynamic perspective
the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control
rationalization
psychoanalytic defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions.
reaction formation
psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.
reciprocal determinism
Bandura's idea that though our environment affects us, we also affect our environment
regression
psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated
relative deprivation
the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself
repression
psychoanalytic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
self-actualization tendency
the human motive toward realizing our inner potential
self-concept
our understanding and evaluation of who we are
self-determination theory
a theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation
self-efficacy
one's sense of competence and effectiveness
self-esteem
one's feelings of high or low self-worth
self-fulfilling prophecy
an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.
self-serving bias
the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors
sensation seeking
the pursuit of experiences that are novel or exciting
situational attribution
attributing behavior to the environment
social comparison
evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others
social facilitation
improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
social loafing
the tendency for people to put less effort into a simple task when working with others on that task
social norms
expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior
social reciprocity norm
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
social responsibility norm
an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them
social trap
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior
stereotype
a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people
sublimation
psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people re-channel their unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities.
superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
trait theories
Theoretical view stressing that personality consists of broad, enduring dispositions (traits) that tend to lead to characteristic responses.
unconditional positive regard
an attitude of total acceptance toward another person
unconscious processes
mental processes occurring outside of and not available to conscious awareness
universality of emotions
a widely accepted theory that six basic emotions are universal across cultures: happiness, surprise, fear, disgust, anger, and sadness
Yerkes-Dodson Law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
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