Dark ages

Byzantine Empire

The Eastern Roman Empire that remained in power longer than the Western Roman Empire due to the strength of its imperial regime.

Theodosian Walls

Famous double line of walls built in the 5th century in Constantinople, making the city almost impregnable during the medieval period.

Siege of Constantinople (1453)

The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman forces on May 29, 1453, after a two-month siege.

Justinian

An ambitious leader of the Eastern Roman Empire known for his mixed record of success and the Nika Revolt.

Nika Revolt

A revolt against Justinian that destroyed important buildings in Constantinople, leading to 35,000 deaths in a single day.

Justinian's Code

A body of law that Justinian compiled, which became the basis for modern laws in Europe.

Hagia Sophia

An opulent temple built by Justinian in Constantinople, known as the 'temple of holy wisdom.'

Themes system

Military districts in the Byzantine Empire where civil administration was replaced by military rule, implemented by Herakleios.

Exarchates

Military headquarters outside the heart of the Eastern Roman Empire, such as Ravenna and Carthage.

Herakleios

The Byzantine Emperor (reigned 610–641) who implemented the themes system and defended against the Sasanian Persians.

True Cross

A relic returned to Jerusalem by Herakleios after defeats in the Persian wars.

Caesaropapism

A system where the state defines church policy and the emperor acts like the Pope.

Iconoclasm

The rejection or destruction of religious icons; policies instituted by Byzantine emperors Leo III and Constantine V.

Empress Irene

Regent for her underage son who declared iconoclasm a heresy and later was exiled.

Basil II

The Eastern Roman Emperor known as the Bulgar-Slayer for his conquests against Bulgaria.

Battle of Manzikert (1071)

A battle where the Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantine Empire, contributing to its decline.

Fall of Constantinople (Ottoman Conquest)

The capture of Constantinople by Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire.

Monasticism

A religious way of life where monks live in isolation to focus on prayer and spiritual matters.

Saint Benedict

The founder of monasticism in the West, known for his rule of ora et labora (work and pray).

Pope Gregory I

A major supporter of monasteries and missionaries, instrumental in the spread of Christianity.

Book of Kells

An illuminated manuscript containing parts of the Christian Gospels, produced in monasteries.

Lombards

An Arian Christian group that invaded the Western Roman Empire after the death of Justinian.

Visigoths

A group originally Arian Christians that converted to Orthodox Christianity, located in Spain.

Councils of Toledo

Powerful church councils that had significant influence over Visigoth government and society.

Clovis I

The first king of the Franks who converted to Christianity, leading to the Christianization of the Franks.

Frankish Succession

The inheritance system among Franks that often led to infighting and division of territories.

Mayor of the Palace

An influential position in Merovingian France that eventually gained power over the king.

Charles Martel

Mayor of the Palace known for defeating Muslim invasions at the Battle of Tours.

Pepin the Short

King of the Franks who replaced the Merovingian dynasty with the Carolingian dynasty.

Charlemagne

Frankish king who expanded the empire and was crowned emperor by the Pope, symbolizing the Christianization of the empire.

Missi dominici

Two officials, one clerical and one secular, sent by Charlemagne to supervise local authorities.

Counts

Administrative officials responsible for the royal justice in cities within the Frankish Empire.

Duke

A higher-ranking administrative official than a count, overseeing larger regions.

Alcuin

A scholar who established educational reforms in Frankish schools during Charlemagne's reign.

Treaty of Verdun

The agreement that divided Charlemagne's empire among his grandsons, beginning the formation of modern European states.

European Invaders

Various groups including Vikings and Magyars that challenged Frankish authority post-Charlemagne.

Vikings

Scandinavian raiders known for negotiating and invading territories, significantly impacting Europe.

Charles the Simple

The Frankish king who granted land to Viking leader Rollo, establishing Normandy.

Normandy

Land granted to the Viking leader Rollo by Charles the Simple to stop Viking raids on Frankish territory.