Dark ages

BYZANTINE EMPIRE

The strength of the Roman imperial regime in Constantinople (the Eastern Roman Empire) allowed them to remain in power longer than the Western Roman Empire. “Barbarian” federates tended to move west, making the Western Roman Empire weaker.

CONSTANTINOPLE: As the city grew, the famous double line of the Theodosian Walls was built in the 5th century. Although the other sections of the walls were less elaborate, they were, when well-manned, almost impregnable for any medieval besieger. They saved the city, and the Byzantine Empire with it, during sieges by the Avar-Sassanian coalition, Arabs, Rus', and Bulgars, among others. The advent of gunpowder siege cannons rendered the fortifications vulnerable, but cannon technology was not sufficiently advanced to capture the city on its own, and the walls could be repaired between reloading. Ultimately, the city fell from the sheer weight of numbers of the Ottoman forces on 29 May 1453 after a two-month siege.

JUSTINIAN: Justinian was an ambitious leader of the Eastern Roman Empire with a mixed record of success. He fought several expensive wars against Arian Christians such as the Ostrogoths and Vandals, exhausting the treasury. Under his leadership during the Nika Revolt (see next slide), many important buildings in Constantinople were destroyed by rebels. Theodora was a former prostitute who became empress by marrying Justinian. Just as it appeared that the Justinian would lose during the Nika Revolt, Theodora said something to the effect of “empire is a fitting burial shroud,” meaning she would rather die fighting than flee to save her life. This inspired Justinian and his generals to fight back against the rebels, and Justinian eventually crushed the revolt.

NIKA REVOLT: When fans of the chariot races at the Hippodrome (similar to the Circus Maximus in Rome) rioted, Justinian (see previous slide) arrested the leaders. The people revolted against Justinian (the Nika revolt). When it looked as if Justinian would lose against the rebels, his wife Theodora shamed Justinian into action and inspired him and his generals to fight back. 35,000 people are killed in one day as Justinian punishes the revolt.

JUSTINIAN’S CODE: On a more successful note, Justinian assembled Roman laws from his own and previous eras, creating a body of law that would be the basis for modern laws throughout Europe. Many of the laws were inspired by Orthodox Christian values.

HAGIA SOPHIA: The Hagia Sophia is an opulent temple built by Justinian in Constantinople (present day Istanbul, Turkey), known as the “temple of holy wisdom.”

To erase the memory of the Nika Revolt, Justinian tried to recover Western Roman Empire lands lost to the Arian Christian Ostrogoths and Vandals. He largely succeeded through 20 years of warfare, but could not maintain his victories. The wars were expensive, as were the terms of treaties that bought off some enemies. In addition, a plague spread throughout most of the Eastern Roman Empire territories in the west. As a result of the wars and plagues, the Eastern Roman

Empire was bankrupted and weakened.

MORE BYZANTINES: HERAKLEIOS: Herakleios (reigned 610–641), could not hope to dispense justice, collect taxes, protect the church, and ensure the future to his dynasty unless military power reinforced his orders. A system of military government, the exarchate (SEE BELOW), had accomplished those objectives so well in the West that, in a moment of despair, Heraclius sought to return to the land of his origins. In all likelihood, he applied similar principles of military rule to his possessions throughout Asia Minor, granting his generals (stratēgoi) both civil and military authority over those lands that they occupied with their “themes,” as the army groups, or corps, were called in the first years of the 7th century. Themes system = “Themes” are military districts where civilian administration of territory is replaced with military administration of territory (grew out of the “exarchates”). Soldiers in the themes typically were part-time warriors and part-time farmers, living in the territory year round. Soldiers now had a personal interest in defending their own land and farms. Begins under Herakleios.

Exarchates= Military headquarters outside of the heart of the Eastern Roman Empire, such as those in Ravenna and Carthage.

Herakleios of the Eastern Roman Empire fought several wars, notably against the Persians. His accomplishments included returning from these wars with the True Cross, reputed to be the remnants of the cross on which Jesus was crucified. Heraclius inherited a war against the Sasanian Persians, who had threatened the borders for almost four centuries. Their main commander, Shahrbaraz, took control of Antioch in 612 and Damascus in 613, proceeding to Jerusalem in the next year. In the last city, thousands of monks, priests, and nuns were murdered in three days, while the patriarch Zacharias was imprisoned. No house was spared and the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre was laid in ashes, as were the graves of Christians. Even worse, the True Cross was seized, together with the lance and sponge used during the crucifixion of Jesus – a disgrace to the Byzantines that had to be avenged anyway. To make matters even worse, the Persians also seized Alexandria in Egypt and blocked the corn supply to Constantinople. Famine erupted, followed by an epidemic. In December 627, Heraclius defeated a large Persian army near the ruins of ancient Nineveh. The battle lasted eleven hours but was decisive. On September 14, 628, he triumphantly returned to Constantinople, entering the city through the Golden Gate, displaying the True Cross in a chariot that was pulled by four elephants. In 630 he returned the relic to Jerusalem and there, in the presence of patriarch Zacharias, began the restoration of the church of the Holy Sepulchre. After many years, the archenemy was finally defeated. However, these wars came at great cost. Both Persia and the Eastern Roman Empire were exhausted by the wars, leading to an opportunity for Islamic empires and nomadic groups to emerge with power. The Arabs rapidly advanced and took Damascus in 635. Everywhere, they received support from the local population: the Syrians knew that the conquerors would not impose the heavy taxes that Heraclius needed for the reconstruction of his eastern provinces. Although the Byzantine Empire was exhausted from the Persian war, the emperor managed to build an army for a counterattack. In 636, he gathered 80,000 men near Antioch. The Arabs retreated from Damascus and Emesa, and camped near the river Yarmouk, a tributary of the Jordan. In May, the imperial army advanced to the south, but for reasons that have remained unclear to us, the final attack was postponed for three

months. This had fatal consequences. The blazing heat undermined the morale of the Byzantine troops and to make matters worse, a violent sandstorm struck from the south, blinding Heraclius’ soldiers. Of course this was the moment the Arab commander, Khalid, had been waiting for. He attacked and defeated Heraclius' army. His victory was decisive: the Byzantines were unable to rebuild an army and the Syrians accepted the Arabs as liberators.

CAESAROPAPISM: The state defining church policy; the emperor acting as the church/Pope.

ICONOCLASM: Many Christians develop faith in icons, such as worshipping religious symbols (a statue of Jesus for example) or believing these icons can cure ailments. Religious leaders in the Eastern Roman Empire view the worshipping of images/icons/symbols as heretical.

Iconoclasm: “the breaking of images.” Instituted by Eastern Roman Emperors Leo III and his son, Constantine V, the church and the state outlaw the veneration of symbols (icons). Disagreements over the role of symbols and images are a factor in divisions between the Eastern and Western Church. Many icons were reminders of the sanctity of saints, reminders of examples Christians should follow. In some cases, the images are as venerated as the saints themselves, leading to accusations that the images serve as false idols. The Pope condemns iconoclast policies of the Emperor, so the Emperor removes control of Papal state lands from the Pope. This split deepens the divide between the Western and Eastern Roman Empires, and the Western and Eastern Church.

EMPRESS IRENE: (797-802): Irene is a regent for her underage son (who is technically the Emperor). She eventually has her son killed so that she could continue rule. Irene formally announces that iconoclasm is heresy (weighing in on the side of those who support venerating religious images). Irene also fostered closer ties with the Frankish ruler Charlemagne, a close supporter of the Pope. Irene is eventually sent into exile, but is considered saint by the Church for she restored the veneration of icons.

BASIL II: Under Basil II (r. 976 to 1025), the Eastern Roman Empire expanded, but at great financial costs. He became known as the Bulgar-Slayer (Bulgaroktonos) for his exploits in conquering ancient Bulgaria. With a tight hold on Byzantine purse strings and a private army of giant Vikings, Basil got the better of at least two significant usurpers for his throne, reconquered Greece and all of the Balkans, won victories in Syria and doubled the size of the empire. Also, areas that served as buffers to potential enemies were now part of the empire, meaning parts of the empire were directly exposed to invasion. After Basil’s death, many parts of the empire revolted and the empire fell into decline.

DECLINE OF THE BYZANTINES: Battle of Manzikert (1071): Saljuq Turks, under the rule of Alp Arslan, successfully held off a large attack by the Byzantine Empire. The victorious Seljuk army captured the Byzantine emperor Romanos IV Diogenes, and, with the empire in disarray as generals squabbled for the throne, nothing could stop the Seljuks sweeping across Asia Minor.

Manzikert was not a terrible defeat in terms of casualties or immediate territorial loss, but as a psychological blow to Byzantine military prowess and the sacred person of the emperor, it would resound for centuries and be held up as the watershed after which the Byzantine Empire fell into a long, slow, and permanent decline. This defeat for the weakened Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantines) allowed the Muslim Saljuqids to settle the eastern region of the Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor.

FALL OF THE BYZANTINES: Fall of Constantinople, (May 29, 1453), conquest of Constantinople by Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire. The dwindling Byzantine Empire came to an end when the Ottomans breached Constantinople’s ancient land wall after besieging the city for 55 days. Constantine XI was killed in the action, most likely near the Gate of St. Romanos, although, as he had discarded any indications of his status to avoid his body being used as a trophy, his demise is not known for certain. The emperor could have fled the city days before but he chose to stay with his people, and a legend soon grew up that he had not died at all but, instead, he had been magically encased in marble and buried beneath the city which he would, one day, return to rule again.

THE DARK AGES: EUROPE

MONASTICISM: The idea of monks (holy men) living in monasteries. Monasteries are generally in isolated places where monks can focus on things like fasting and prayer without distractions. Monks produce many religious written works during this period (literacy is uncommon, but monasteries provide monks with access to education).

Saint Benedict (d. 547): Founded many monasteries based on the idea of ora et labora (“work & pray”). The idea was for monks to concentrate on becoming self-sufficient through their labor in addition to their spiritual work. The Benedictine Rules for daily life of monks were created to guide them in their journey to be self-sufficient. These rules dictated the daily activities of the monks down to the hour!

Pope Gregory I (d. 604) = A major supporter of Christian monasteries which Gregory sees as useful for providing education and training future church officials. Pope Gregory was also a supporter of missionaries; one example is ordering monks to convert Germanic tribal groups such as the Angles and the Saxons. This was done by absorbing pagan customs into the Christian faith. EX: Christmas as the birth of Christ. As missionaries convert more people to Christianity, the authority and power of the position of Pope increases.

Saint Patrick: St. Patrick lived as a slave in Ireland after his capture by pirates. He eventually escaped but returned to Ireland, in order to convert the inhabitants to Christianity. Ireland becomes a Christian stronghold, and Irish monks branch out to many other locations to spread the religion.

Book of Kells (c. 800) = an example of the religious texts produced in monasteries; the Book of

Kells contains parts of the Christian Gospels with elaborately ornate illustrations.

LOMBARDS: Three years after the death of Justinian, the Lombards invade the weakened Western Roman Empire. Like the other “barbarian” groups, they are Arian Christians. Initially the Lombards conflict with bishops and popes of Orthodox Christianity (who by this time have acquired political power beyond their power in the church). In the early 600s, a Lombard queen, Theudelinda, convinces her second husband, Agilulf, to convert to Orthodox Christianity. From this point forward, the Lombards follow Orthodox Christianity.

VISIGOTHS: The Visigoths were another Arian Christian “barbarian” group located in present day Spain. In 586, a Visigoth emperor, Reccared, converts to Orthodox Christianity.

Councils of Toledo = Powerful church councils from Toledo (capital of the Visigoths) with strong influence over the Visigoth government and society, including nominating Visigoth kings. The Councils of Toledo pass measures that oppress non-Christian communities.

FRANKS: Roman federates (semi-autonomous group under Roman government rule).

In about 350, they became Roman federati and were allowed to occupy lands south of the Rhine, in what is now the southern Netherlands and northern Belgium. It would appear that sea level varies over time, and the higher or lower water level has a great effect upon low-lying lands such as those the Franks inhabited. At the height of the Roman empire, the sea-level was low and this particular region was rich in agricultural products and active in trade and commerce between the Romans and the Germanic tribes. As time passed, however, the sea began to encroach, and the area became a great marsh not unlike the bayou country of southwestern Louisiana. Like the Cajuns of that region, the Franks were hunters and trappers and supplied recruits for the Roman armies of the period. When Roman authority collapses in Gaul (an area making up parts of present-day France and Belgium) during the 5th century, the Franks take over control. Early converts to Orthodox Christianity, the Franks are able to overcome the distinction as “barbarians.” The “Franks” eventually become known as the “French.”

Clovis I (the name is a form of "Louis," which became a favorite name of the French royal dynasty) = In 481 CE, Clovis, the founding father of the Merovingian Dynasty, assumed the throne at the tender age of 15 when his father Childeric, king of a Germanic tribe known as the Salian Franks, died. The pagan king Childeric had fought alongside the Romans against the Huns. The family name "Merovingian" comes from Clovis' grandfather Merovech, who had also fought alongside the Romans, dying in 456 CE. Although raised a pagan (according to some historians, he would be the last of the pagan kings), Clovis realized that conversion to Christianity would be extremely beneficial to him if he ever hoped to secure the loyalty of all of the Frankish people. His conversion to Orthodox Christianity makes the Franks Christians. Under his rule, the Franks expand their power quickly.

FRANKISH SUCCESSION: The Franks quickly expand because as Orthodox Christians, they are no longer seen as “barbarians” and few territories resist their advances. Their expansion stops mostly because of infighting amongst themselves. The Franks' system of succession allowed all sons to inherit their father’s land, thus when a king died, sons frequently fought each other for control of greater territories. Gavelkind, or the division of property equally among the children of the deceased property owner, was the traditional principle of inheritance among the Franks, and so the royal lands, as well as the royal title -- which was also considered a personal possession, were divided among the sons of a dead ruler. There was competition among the heirs to gain a greater share of the patrimony, and a rivalry arose between Neustria, Austrasia, and Aquitaine -- the three regions into which the realm was often split to be passed on to the heirs.

Salic Law of Succession, the rule by which, in certain sovereign dynasties, persons descended from a previous sovereign only through a woman were excluded from succession to the throne. Gradually formulated in France, the rule takes its name from the code of the Salian Franks, the Lex Salica (Salic Law).

MAYOR OF THE PALACE: The only governmental institution was the chieftainship or kingship, and the Merovingians based their power upon lands -- towns and villages -- that they considered to be their own personal property. They and their followers lived on the produce of these lands, and the royal household travelled from royal estate to royal estate since no single estate produced enough to supply the royal household for more than a few days and nights. The staff who provided for the household also had to manage the estates that supplied them with food, clothing, horses, and other necessities. These household servants included the mayor of the palace (who directed all household operations). In time, the mayor of the palace ruled for the king, much like the viziers who ruled for caliphs in Muslim territories or the shoguns who ruled for the emperor in Japan. The position of Mayor of the Palace eventually became passed down by family succession, thus they became hereditary positions as powerful as the king. The increasing power of the Mayors of the Palace decreases the power of Merovingian kings.

CHARLES MARTEL (born c. 688—died October 22, 741, mayor of the palace of Austrasia (the eastern part of the Frankish kingdom) from 715 to 741: Charles was the illegitimate son of Pippin II of Herstal, the mayor of the palace of Austrasia. By this period the Merovingian kings of the Frankish realm were rulers in name only. The burden of rule lay upon the mayors of the palace, who governed Austrasia, the eastern part of the Frankish kingdom, and Neustria, its western portion. Neustria bitterly resented its conquest and annexation in 687 by Pippin, who, acting in the name of the king, had reorganized and reunified the Frankish realm. The assassination of Pippin’s only surviving legitimate son in 714 was followed a few months later by the death of Pippin himself. Pippin left as heirs three grandsons, and, until they came of age, Plectrude, Pippin’s widow, was to hold power. As an illegitimate son, Charles Martel was entirely neglected in the will. But he was young, strong, and determined, and an intense struggle for power at once broke out in the Frankish kingdom. By 719 Charles had acquired the position of Mayor of the Palace and led the Franks to a victory over Muslim invasions from Spain, at the Battle of Tours in 732. Charles relied heavily on armed freemen to serve as the foundation of his military, but the increasing pace of offensive operations compelled him to create for his army a strong cavalry

element composed of landed professional fighting men. The expense of arms and armor was nevertheless significant. To finance this costly enterprise, he appropriated some of the ecclesiastical lands recently acquired and consolidated by various bishops, mostly in Burgundy. It was then decided that the warriors to whom the lands had been granted should hold them for life (precaria), with the church remaining the actual owner. This battle is significant because it stops the Muslim expansion into Europe. Charles Martel used this to victory to become more powerful than the actual Merovingian king. Martel was a Carolingian, and the victory at Tours gave the Carolingians great prestige.

PEPIN THE SHORT  c. 714 – 24 September 768), was King of the Franks from 751 until his death in 768: Pepin the Short was a son of Charles Martel and also a Mayor of the Palace. Pepin gets the Pope to declare Pepin as the new king, thereby replacing the Merovingian dynasty’s control of the Franks to Carolingian control of the Franks. In exchange, Pepin gives land to the Pope (the “Donation of Pepin”).

Papal States were land territories under the direct administrative control of the Orthodox Christian Church and the Pope.

CHARLEMAGNE: Charlemagne considered a model of kingships in this era. When Pope Leo III feuds with others over control of the papacy, he runs afoul of the Lombards (who control the city of Rome) and is blinded in battle. The Pope asks for Charlemagne’s assistance. Charlemagne invades Italy, defeats the Lombards, and annexes their kingdom. Pope Leo responds by crowning Charlemagne as the emperor of the Romans, and Charlemagne grants additional land to the Pope to control. This marks a transformation in that Charlemagne is part of the Carolingian line of Frankish leaders – Christianized “barbarians” are now acting as the protectors of the church. As the protector of the Church, Charlemagne is the champion of Christendom. Charlemagne conquers the Saxons (and forces them to become Christians) to expand his empire. He also leads armies into Spain to protect Christianity from the Muslim Umayyads.

FRANKISH ADMINISTRATION: Christianity spread through Carolingian Europe by the mission work of Irish monasteries and by force through the conquering of Charlemagne. The rest of Europe follows the religious and administrative examples of the Charlemagne and the Carolingians.

“ missi dominici” translates to the "lord’s emissaries,” lord meaning king. The missi dominici were two officials working together, one secular member and one member of the clergy (a layman and a bishop), who inspected the work of dukes and counts.

Counts: administrative officials in charge of cities, with limited control of municipal territories, and administer royal justice.

Duke: administrative officials similar to counts, but in charge of larger geographic areas (more authority than the counts).

Palace Chapel at Aachen: Charlemagne’s favorite palace (in present day Germany); also symbol

of how Franks were influenced by Muslim architecture (from Umayyads in Spain) and the Christian East.

Frankish education: The Franks push for greater literacy resulting in the standardization of writing (before the printing press, legible and standardized writing is an important development). The push for literacy results in the standardization of uncial (upper-case) and miniscule (lower-case) letters.

ALCUIN:  In 781 he met Charlemagne in Italy and accepted his invitation to Aachen, where the king was gathering the leading Irish, English, and Italian scholars of the age. The school, where Charlemagne himself, his family, his friends, and his friends’ sons were taught, became a lively center of discussion and exchange of knowledge. Alcuin introduced the methods of English learning into the Frankish schools, systematized the curriculum, raised the standards of scholarship, and encouraged the study of liberal arts for the better understanding of spiritual doctrine. He was also an advisor to Charlemagne . In 796 he left the court to become abbot of the Abbey of St. Martin at Tours, where he encouraged the work of his monks on the beautiful Carolingian minuscule script, the ancestor of modern Roman typefaces.

POST CHARLEMAGNE: Charlemagne’s only surviving heir is Louis I the Pious. He replaces Charlemagne as the king of the Franks, Lombards, etc. He continues Charlemagne’s policies, but his sons start fighting among themselves for control even before Louis dies. The sons of Louis I the Pious: Louis, Lothar and Charles the Bald, divide the kingdom created by their grandfather, Charlemagne.

TREATY OF VERDUN: The Treaty of Verdun divides the Frankish controlled kingdoms into three territories. West Frankish Kingdom go to Charles the Bald (including modern-day France), Lothar gets modern-day Italy and other territories, and Louis II gets modern-day Germany. This division shows the beginning of modern European states such Italy, Germany, and France.

EUROPEAN INVADERS: After the death of Charlemagne, new groups challenge the Frankish/Carolingian kings who continue to fight each other. These include the Muslim Moors (WHY?), the Magyars (future Hungarians) and Vikings, who raid into Frankish territory.

VIKINGS: Vikings branch out from areas around present day Scandinavia (present day Denmark, Finland, Norway). They attack new territories from high-speed, elusive ships. Vikings attack the British Isles (England, Scotland, Ireland), Constantinople, Paris, and other areas, exposing the limitations of the Frankish/Carolingian power. Viking excursions even lead to settlements in Iceland and Greenland, and in 1000 AD, Vikings briefly settle in what is now Canada (500 years before Christopher Columbus). The Vikings were all from Scandinavia but the term did not designate a homogeneous group; rather, it referred to one who joined an expedition expressly for the purpose of raiding others for personal gain. The Old Norse phrase fara i viking (meaning “to go on expedition”) is understood as meaning something closer to piracy and robbery than legitimate trade.

VIKING RAIDS ON ENGLISH TERRITORY:

The Viking raids and subsequent settlements define the period known as the Viking Age in Britain which had profound consequences on the development of the culture and language. The raids started in June of 793 CE when three ships docked at the shore by the abbey of Lindisfarne. The abbey's reeve, Beaduheard, believed he recognized them as those of Norse traders and, thinking they had lost their way, went out to direct them up the coast to the estate he thought they had been aiming for. Upon approaching the ships, however, he was instantly killed by the sailors who then sacked the abbey and murdered everyone they found inside or on the grounds; this was only the beginning.

The raids continued in 794 CE when Viking ships sacked the monastery of Jarrow in Northumbria, in 795 CE when they struck at the monastery of Iona in Scotland and, in the same year, attacked sites in Ireland. Raids and military incursions continued in Britain through c. 1066 CE, ending with the invasion by the great Norwegian king Harald Hardrada (1046-1066 CE), known as “the last of the Vikings”, whose victories over the Anglo-Saxon king Harold Godwinson (1066 CE) contributed significantly to William the Conqueror's Norman victory over Harold at The Battle of Hastings later in the same year.

VIKING RAIDS ON FRANKISH TERRITORY:

845: Attacked Paris successfully under Ragnar Lodbrok. West Frankish king Charles the Bald bribes Ragnar to leave with 7,000 French livres or 5670 pounds of silver and gold!!

November, 885 – October, 886: Vikings lay siege to Paris again. This time unsuccessfully. Defense of Paris by Odo, Count of Paris. An account of the siege was left by a monk Abo Cernuus. The account is probably biased to favor the French and Cernuus is well known for his exaggerations. Vikings eventually bribed to leave after the arrival of the Frankish king Charles the Fat. He offers the Vikings 700 livres of silver to leave.

CHARLES THE SIMPLE: 911 = Charles the Simple gives land grant to Viking leader Rollo.

This grant will become known as Normandy. Purpose of this gift:

1. To encourage Vikings to stop raiding Frankish territory.

2. To have Rollo protect the mouth of the Seine River against future Viking raids.