APSYCH

Memory

Learning that persists over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval (ex: remembering a birthday or trip)

Recall

Retrieving information not currently in awareness (ex: answering a fill-in-the-blank question)

Recognition

Identifying items previously learned (ex: choosing a correct multiple-choice answer)

Relearning

Learning something more quickly when studied again (ex: reviewing old vocab faster than before)

Encoding

Getting information into memory (ex: focusing on a lecture to understand it)

Storage

Retaining encoded information over time (ex: keeping math formulas for later)

Retrieval

Getting information out of memory (ex: recalling a formula on a test)

Sensory Memory

Immediate, very brief recording of sensory info (ex: remembering a quick flash of a photo)

Short-Term Memory

Briefly activated memory of a few items (ex: recalling a phone number long enough to dial it)

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent, limitless memory archive (ex: knowing your childhood address)

Working Memory

Active processing of incoming info and info retrieved from long-term memory (ex: solving a math problem in your head)

Central Executive

Part of working memory that directs attention and coordinates info (ex: focusing on reading while ignoring noise)

Phonological Loop

Holds auditory information temporarily (ex: repeating a phone number in your head)

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Holds visual and spatial info temporarily (ex: remembering where you parked your car)

Parallel Processing

Processing multiple aspects of a stimulus simultaneously (ex: listening to music while reading)

Neurogenesis

Formation of new neurons (ex: exercise increasing neurons in the hippocampus)

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

a key biological mechanism for learning and memory, representing the persistent strengthening of synapses between neurons due to repeated stimulation (ex: neurons firing more easily after practice)

Automatic Processing

Encoding info without conscious effort (ex: remembering the route to school automatically)

Explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that can be consciously known and declared

Implicit memory

Unconscious memory of skills and conditioned responses

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort (ex: studying vocab words for a test)

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information (ex: remembering daily events without thinking)

Procedural memory

Memory for automatic skills (ex: typing without thinking)

Iconic memory

Brief sensory memory of visual stimuli (a few tenths of a second) (ex: remembering flashed letters)

Echoic memory

Brief sensory memory of auditory stimuli (3–4 seconds) (ex: recalling what a teacher just said)

Short-term memory

Memory that holds a few items briefly (about 7 ± 2 bits) (ex: remembering a number before writing it)

Working memory

Active processing of incoming information and retrieved long-term memories (ex: solving a math problem using formulas)

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units (ex: breaking numbers into groups)

Mnemonics

Memory aids that use vivid imagery or organizational devices (ex: “My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Noodles”)

Hierarchies

Organizing information into categories and subcategories to aid retrieval (ex: outlining notes by topic)

Distributed practice / Spacing effect

Studying information over time to improve long-term retention (ex: studying a little daily)

Testing effect

Enhanced memory from actively retrieving information rather than rereading (ex: using flashcards)

Shallow processing

Encoding on a basic level, based on structure or appearance of words (ex: noticing capital letters)

Deep processing

Encoding semantically, based on meaning, leads to better retention

Self-reference effect

Tendency to better remember information when it is personally meaningful (ex: remembering adjectives that describe you)

Long-term memory (LTM)

System for storing information over long periods

Memory consolidation

Transfer of memories from hippocampus to cortex for long-term storage (ex: remembering material better after sleep)

Explicit memory

The conscious, long-term recollection of factual information, concepts, and specific events. (knowing the capital of a country)

Semantic memory

Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge (ex: knowing the rules of soccer)

Episodic memory

Explicit memory of personally experienced events (ex: recalling your last birthday)

Hippocampus

Neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories before storage (ex: remembering a classroom’s location)

Frontal lobes

Brain regions that help process and retrieve explicit memories

Implicit memory

Unconscious memory of skills and conditioned responses (ex: knowing how to ride a bike)

Cerebellum

Brain structure that forms and stores implicit memories from classical conditioning (ex: blinking when expecting air after a tone)

Basal ganglia

Deep brain structures that store procedural skills (ex: riding a bike or typing)

Amygdala

Limbic system structure that processes emotions and enhances memory formation (ex: remembering a traumatic event)

Flashbulb memory

Vivid memory of emotionally significant moments (ex: remembering 9/11 or a first kiss)

Forgetting

Memory can fail for several reasons: encoding failure, storage decay, or retrieval failure (ex: forgetting someone’s name)

Encoding failure

Information never enters long-term memory (ex: forgetting a detail you didn’t notice)

Storage decay

Physical memory trace fades over time (ex: forgetting nonsense syllables)

Retrieval failure

Memory exists but cannot be accessed. Retrieval cues help. (ex: cue helps recall a sentence)

Proactive interference

Older learning disrupts recall of new information (ex: old combo interferes with new one)

Retroactive interference

New learning disrupts recall of old information (ex: learning new lyrics makes you forget old ones)

Motivated forgetting / Repression

Freud: memories self-censored to reduce anxiety (ex: pushing away painful memories)

Memory construction / Reconsolidation

Memories are reconstructed, not exact. Retrieval can modify stored memory. (ex: misremembering details after retelling)

Misinformation effect

Exposure to misleading info can corrupt memories (ex: “smashed” vs. “hit” car crash study)

Imagination inflation

Imagining events can create false memories (ex: believing a fake event happened)

Source amnesia

Forgetting where a memory came from

Déjà vu

Familiarity without conscious recall

False memories

Memories can feel real but be inaccurate (ex: recalling a word not on a list)

Children’s eyewitness reliability

Children can form false memories under suggestive questioning (ex: false reports after leading questions)

Improving memory

Strategies include spaced rehearsal, meaning, retrieval cues, mnemonics, sleep, and testing (ex: using flashcards before bed)

Active Learning

A learning method that requires learners to be actively involved in the learning process through activities that promote higher-order thinking, such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation

Passive Learning

A learning method where the learner receives information from an instructor or medium without direct involvement or interaction. The focus is on absorbing and assimilating information