Chapter 11: Cognitive Psychology: Memory, Language, and Problem-Solving

**Episodic memory**

memory for events that we ourselves have experienced.

**Chunking**

Grouping items of information into units.

**proactive interference**

in which old information makes it more difficult to learn new information.

**retroactive interference**

in which new information pushes old information out of short-term memory.

**Self-reference effect**

It is also easier to remember things that are personally relevant.

**dual-coding hypothesis**

indicates that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone.

**mnemonic device**

is to use short words or phrases that represent longer strings of information.

**Effortful processing**

when we make a conscious effort to retain information.

Creativity

can be defined as the process of producing something novel yet worthwhile.

**George Sperling**

experimented on memory and **partial report.**

Typicality

is the degree to which an object fits the average.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

studied the phenomenon of forgetting.

Cognition

encompasses the mental processes involved in acquiring, organizing, remembering, using, and constructing knowledge.

Visual persistence

A quickly moving fan also may generate such a perception.

Divergent thinking

If many correct answers are possible.

Underextension

is when a child thinks that his or her "mama "is the only "mama ..

Benjamin Lee Whorf

in collaboration with Edward Sapir, proposed a theory of linguistic relativity, according to which speakers of different languages develop different cognitive systems as a result of their differences in language.

Overextension

It results from the infant not knowing enough words to express something fully.

Heuristics

________ contrast with algorithms, which are systematic, mechanical approaches that guarantee an eventual answer to a problem.

Syllogisms

are deductive conclusions drawn from two premises.

Phonemes

are the smallest units of speech sounds in a given language that are still distinct in sound from each other.

Syntax

is the set of rules used in the arrangement of morphemes into meaningful sentences; this can also be thought of as word order.

concept

is a way of grouping or classifying the world around us.

Noam Chomsky

postulated a system for the organization of language based on the concept of what he referred to as transformational grammar.

Prosody

is the rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech.

Inductive reasoning

is the process of drawing general inferences from specific observations.

Elizabeth Loftus

________ and other psychologists are studying the existence of false or implanted memories.

Holophrases

are single terms that are applied by the infant to broad categories of things.

modal model

memory is divided into three separate storage areas: sensory, short- term, and long- term.

Psychologist George Miller

________ found that the information stored in this portion of memory is primarily acoustically coded, despite the nature of the original source.

Self reference effect

It is also easier to remember things that are personally relevant.

Convergent thinking

If the problem can be solved only by one answer.

Source confusion

________ is one likely cause of memory reconstruction.

Insight

is the sudden understanding of a problem or a potential strategy for solving a problem that usually involves conceptualizing the problem in a new way.

Declarative

(or explicit) memory is a memory a person can consciously consider and retrieve, such as episodic and semantic memory.

Confirmation bias

the search for information that supports a particular view, hinders problem- solving by distorting objectivity.

Automatic processing

can occur unconsciously when we are engaged with well- practiced skills, like riding a bicycle.

Elaborative rehearsal

involves organization and understanding of the information that has been encoded in order to transfer the information to long- term memory (as when you try to remember the name of someone you have just met at a party)

representativeness heuristic

The ________ also can lead to incorrect conclusions.

Skinner

explored the idea of the "language acquisition support system, "which is the language- rich or language- poor environment the child is exposed to while growing up.

Long term memory

is the repository for all of our lasting memories and knowledge, and it is organized as a gigantic network of interrelated information.

hindsight bias

or the tendency after the fact to think you knew what the outcome would be, also distorts our ability to view situations objectively.

BF Skinner

________, a noted behaviorist, countered Chomskys argument for language acquisition.

Language acquisition device

which facilitates the acquisition of language in children.

sensory memory

is referred to as iconic if it is visual and echoic if it is auditory.

availability heuristic

means that the conclusion is drawn from what events come readily to mind.

Effortful processing

when we make a conscious effort to retain information.

Episodic memory

or memory for events that we ourselves have experienced.

superordinate concept

is very broad and encompasses a large group of items, such as the concept of "food

Phonemes

________ combine to form morphemes, the smallest semantically meaningful parts of language.

According to the modal model, memory is divided into three separate storage areas

sensory, short-term, and long-term

Each type of memory has four components

storage capacity, duration of code, nature of code, and a way by which information is lost

Visual persistence

A quickly moving fan also may generate such a perception

Automatic processing

can occur unconsciously when we are engaged with well-practiced skills, like riding a bicycle

Self-reference effect

It is also easier to remember things that are personally relevant

Serial position effect

The recency effect tends to fade in about a day; the primacy effect tends to persist longer

Chunking

Grouping items of information into units

Spreading activation

The activation of a few nodes can lead to a pattern of activation within the network that spreads onward

Framing

Repeated suggestions and misleading questions can create false memories

Overextension

It results from the infant not knowing enough words to express something fully

Telegraphic speech

This speech lacks many parts of speech

Prototype

An image emerges in our brain

Divergent thinking

If many correct answers are possible

Convergent thinking

If the problem can be solved only by one answer

Short-term memory

holds information from a few seconds up to about a minute.

**Maintenance rehearsal**

is simple repetition to keep an item in short-term memory until it can be used (as when you say a phone number to yourself over and over again until you can dial it).

**Elaborative rehearsal**

involves organization and understanding of the information that has been encoded in order to transfer the information to long-term memory (as when you try to remember the name of someone you have just met at a party).

**Semantic memory**

also known as declarative, which comprises facts, figures, and general world knowledge.

**Procedural memory**

memory consisting of skills and habits.

**Declarative (or explicit) memory**

is a memory a person can consciously consider and retrieve, such as episodic and semantic memory.

**nondeclarative** (or **implicit) memory**

is beyond conscious consideration and would include procedural memory, priming, and classical conditioning.

**State-dependent memory**

also applies to states of mind, meaning that information memorized when under the influence of a drug is easier to access when in a similar state than when not on that drug.

**Spreading activation**

The activation of a few nodes can lead to a pattern of activation within the network that spreads onward.

**flashbulb memory**

which is a very deep, vivid memory in the form of a visual image associated with a particular emotionally arousing event.

**Source confusion**

is one likely cause of memory reconstruction.

**Elizabeth Loftus**

other psychologists are studying the existence of false or implanted memories.

**Framing**

Repeated suggestions and misleading questions can create false memories.

**Surface structure of language**

The superficial way in which the words are arranged in a text or in speech

**Deep structure of language**

The underlying meaning of the words.

**superordinate concept**

is very broad and encompasses a large group of items, such as the concept of “food.”

**basic concept**

is smaller and more specific—for example, “bread.”

**subordinate concept**

is even smaller and more specific, such as “rye bread.”