Jacob Burkhardt
Definition: A Swiss historian and art critic known for his influential work on the Italian Renaissance. He emphasized the importance of cultural history and the development of individualism during this period. His major work, "The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy," explores the social, political, and artistic changes that defined the era. His ideas laid the groundwork for modern cultural history and the study of art in its historical context.
Jacob Burkhardt
Patronage
Support or financial backing provided to artists, writers, or institutions. Typically done for social status.
Importance in this period:
Since Florence was filled with wealthy bankers and merchants, they used a lot of their money to support local artists
Commercial Revolution
This period, spanning from the late Middle Ages to the early modern period, saw significant changes in economic practices, including the establishment of new trade routes, the growth of banking systems, and the emergence of joint-stock companies. It contributed to the rise of capitalism and altered social structures.
Florence
City known for its Renaissance art and architecture.
Center for trade
Lots of loaning in this area
In the same place as the Roman Empire
Trade based economy allowed for more wealthy population
Banking
This system includes services such as savings and checking accounts, loans, mortgages, and investment options. Since Florence was the center of banking, lots of money flowed in and out of the city
Merchant Elite
In contrast with Medieval times, the wealthiest people were often non-title holding landowners who were typically merchants
Italian City-States
Autonomous and nationalistic regions that flourished between the 9th and 16th centuries, characterized by trade, banking, and artistic innovation. Major examples include Venice, Florence, and Genoa. They played a crucial role in the Renaissance, fostering advancements in art, science, and literature.
Sforza Family
Known for their patronage of the arts and architecture, they played a significant role in the political and cultural landscape of Northern Italy. Key figures include Francesco Sforza, who founded the dynasty, and Ludovico Sforza, who was a notable duke and patron of Leonardo da Vinci. Their influence waned after the 16th century, leading to Milan's incorporation into larger states.
Medici Family
Family ruling Florence. Patrons of artists like Michelangelo and Botticelli, they played a crucial role in the development of the Italian Renaissance. Their legacy includes the establishment of the Medici dynasty and the eventual rise to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany.
Girolamo Savonarola
This influential figure criticized the corruption of the church and secular society. Preached that god would punish Italy for bad leadership. He gained power in Florence after the Medici were expelled but was eventually excommunicated and executed in 1498 for his radical views and opposition to the papacy.
Petrarch
An Italian poet and scholar known for his sonnets, particularly those dedicated to Laura. He emphasized the revival of Ancient Roman works. His works laid the groundwork for Renaissance literature and inspired later writers.
Humanism
A philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, focusing on human interests, values, and dignity. Centered on Roman philosophy
Pico della Mirandola
This Renaissance thinker emphasized free will and the unique role of humans in the universe. He is famous for his "Oration on the Dignity of Man," which argues that humans have the power to shape their own destiny and can ascend to divine knowledge through intellect and virtue. His ideas laid the groundwork for humanism and influenced later philosophical thought.
virtu
Someone who could change the course of history
Renaissance Man
A person who excels in multiple fields, combining knowledge and skills in areas such as art, science, literature, and philosophy.
ex. Da Vinci
Humanist Education
Didn’t teach religion, much more general
Focused primarily on Latin/Greek/Rome
Women didn’t get to have an education, although noble women were expected to be skilled at art
The Book of Courtier
Renaissance dialogue written by Baldassare Castiglione, this work outlines the ideal qualities and behaviors of a nobleman. It emphasizes grace, wit, and the importance of arts and culture. The text also discusses the role of women in society and the concept of the "gentleman." It is set in the court of Urbino and reflects the values of humanism.
Niccolo Machiavelli
An Italian Renaissance political philosopher known for his work on political theory and ethics.
Rulers must keep the city strong in order to prevent a civil war
It’s much better for rulers to be feared than loved
Christian Humanism
This movement advocates for the study of classical texts and the application of reason and morality, promoting the idea that human beings can achieve fulfillment through education, virtue, and faith. It seeks to reconcile faith with reason, focusing on the dignity and potential of individuals.
Thomas More
Coined the idea of utopia, was heavily critiqued for it
Erasmus
Wanted everyone to read the Bible, thought is was necessary for self-improvement
Highlighted the importance of personal connections with god
Translated the New Testament into Latin
Printing Press
Causes:
Increased paper supply
Culmination of technology up to that point
Effects:
Increased urban literacy
More schools
People could discuss ideas
Michaelangelo
Painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel
Famous and popular painter, given a celebrity status
Portraits
Showed human ideals
More realistic and expressive
Use of perspective
Geometric Arrangement
Not always religious
Donatello
Revolutionized sculpture by creating realistic forms
Lots of similarities to Greco-Roman art
Ex: David
Brunelleschi
Architect
Tried to create absolute harmony in his work
Loved domes
Italian Renaissance
Started in Florence
Idealistic realism
People more pretty and usually the main focus
Patrons were merchants
Started to become religious after the Catholic Church got themselves involved
Northern Renaissance
Much more religious
Emphasis on nature
Depicted middle classes
Princes were patrons
Violent!
A lot darker in theme and color wise
Jan Van Eyck
First painter to use oils
Arnofili Portrait
Albrect Durer
Woodblock and etching style
Pieter Bruegel the Elder
Flemish painter depicting scenes of peasants
“The Hunters in the Snow”
Raphael
Painted portraits in Rome
Verrrryyyyy famous
The School of Athens
Women in the Arts
Never got famous: noble women could paint but never got “big” for it
Black Africans in Renaissance Europe
High Black Enslaved population in Lisbon
Usually were servants in elite households
Renaissance + Exploration fostered the idea of race
Querrelles des Femmes
Debate about the role of women in society
Christine de Pizan
Female author who wrote about women and why they were misrepresented
Treasure of Ladies
New Monarchs
People who made attempts at consolidating power
Prioritized exploration
Wanted social uniformity
Ex: Ferdinand and Isabella, Charles V, Henry VII, Mehmet II
Henry VII
Worked with Richard III to bring back power to the English monarch
Heavily distrusted the nobles + took land back from them
Struggles with the Yorks
Court of the Star Chamber
Dealt with judicial affairs in harsh ways (such as public shame)
Nobles were pretty much forced to behave
Isabella and Ferdinand
Consolidated power through preventing nobles from joining the parliament
National Church
Religious uniformity
Reconquista
A series of wars fought to take back land from the Muslims in certain parts of the Iberian Peninsula
Inquisition
Killing/Converting non-Catholics
People were mad that converted Catholics got good positions in society
Lots of Jews and Muslims fleeing Spain
Purity of Blood Laws
Once foreign blood was in the family, you can’t wash it out
Ivan III
From the House of Rurik in Russia
Fully Eastern Orthodox, wanted more cathedral construction
Revised the Russian Law Code, had a standing army
Oprichnik: To squash people who are opposing the centralized government + nobles
Mehmet II
House of Osman from the Ottoman Empire
Religiously tolerant, Muslim
Won over the Byzantine Empire, and many Christians didn’t acknowledge his power
Used Janisseries to consolidate power
Charles V
Hapsburg
Lots of tensions with Protestants
Rebellion from the Netherlands
Captured most of Europe
Carnival
A way people spent leisure time during the Medieval Ages/Early Renaissance.
Nuclear family
People lived in small units with mother, father, and children — no extended family
Effects: Structure and purpose of the family changed, increased role of the government on familial matters
Delayed Marriage
People wanted to reach a certain socioeconomic status before marriage
Problems with inheritance
Results:
Less children
Blood Sports
Another form of mass leisure that typically occurred at fairs. People would watch animals fight for funsies
Stocks
The stocks were a form of public punishment from medieval times. The offender sat on a bench with ankles closed into holes in boards for several hours. The wrists and neck might similarly be restrained. Townspeople might throw waste at the prisoner.
Causes of the Age of Exploration
Governments starting to centralized
Necessity for new trade routes to other countries due to increased trade tax
Power
leaders wanting to spread religion
Indian Ocean Trade
Greatly grew as a medium for trade
Allowed for the spread of Islam to islands in the Indian Ocean
Lots of Chinese explorers roaming around this area (Zheng He)
People would acknowledge each other’s political boundaries
Lots of African trade here as well
Malacca
Prominent trading post where good were shipped allowing various trades to prosper
Site of Muslim learning
Gold/Slave trade in Africa
African gold became extremely popular and highly coveted
People wanted to find direct routes to Africa for gold trade
Beginning of slave trade due to exploration
1453
Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans. This led to the growth of the Ottoman Empire, which began to control trade
Venetian and Genoese
Major trade post in Europe
Genoese desperately tried to control spice trade but lost to Venice
Genoese helped fund Spanish Exploration
Venetian trade managed the slave trade
Effects:
Both city states became critical to slave trade due to their connections to Africa + the Middle East
Economic Motives for Exploration
Wanted direct access to trade routes
Religious Motives for Exploration
People saw Exploration as the “New Crusades”
Wanted to spread Christianity
Conquistadors
People who explored new lands and took power over the indigenous people
Caravel
Two/Three masted ship that allowed for people to travel long distances
Was able to hold canons, beginning of Naval Warfare
Ptolemy’s Geography
Accurately depicted the “globe” as round
Latitude and longitude
No Americas
Asia was made too small
Compass
Originated in China
Allowed for navigation
Inspired the creation of the Astrolab
Prince Henry the Navigator
Supported exploration
Aided with the capture of multiple islands around Europe
Church role in Exploration
Supported Exploration b/c it spread Christianity
Legitimized Portuguese travel
Trading Posts
Important areas for trade
Portugal didn’t really “colonize,” they just wanted trade partners
Bartholomeu Dias
Tried to get to India through Africa, but failed
Vasco de Gama
Successful in reaching India
Came back with a bunch of spices
Caused people to become interested in Indian spice
Christopher Columbus
Interested in the Portuguese exploration
Heavily religious and wanted to spread Christianity
Used to work with Portugal but then switched to work for Spain
First landed in the Bahamas
Treaty of Tordesillas
Created by the Pope to mediate exploratory tensions between Portugal and Spain
Created an imaginary line separating Spanish from Portuguese territory
Ferdinand Magellan
Spain mad that Portugal is getting rich
Wanted to find a west route to Asia and succeeded
Was wayyy too long and dangerous, no one ever attempted it again
French Fur
The French thought they were in China but were actually in Canada, used local beaver for fur
Became very popular
Aztec Empire
Had a strong hierarchical system
Lots of wars with neighboring states
The Spanish brought translators and partnered with local enemy states in order to take down the Aztecs
Incas
Emperor thought he could trick the Spaniards
Spain ended up winning over the Incan empire as well
How'd the Spanish always win?
Good weapons
Internal divisions amongst the indigenous people made it much easier to attack
Disease killed off lots of indigenous populations
Spain/Portugal Exploration vs Northern Europe
Spain/Portugal:
Expeditions were government funded
Conquered indigenous empires
Tried to gain monopoly of goods
(Portugal) - didn’t really colonize
Northern Europe
Expeditions were led by charter companies
Didn’t conquer entire empires
Explored Africa
Viceroroyalties
The four possessions of Spain rules by Spanish representatives
Effects:
Caused other countries to engage in direct rule over their holdings
Encomienda System
System where Native Americans had to labor for a place to live
Spanish used this to also force conversions
Ethical Dilemmas with the Natives
After converting, Native Americans became free
New necessity for labor caused increased African slavery
Mita
Less aggressive form of the Encomienda system
Native Americans only had to labor for certain time periods
Usually in a mine
Women and Colonialism
Served as translators
Were often raped and sexually abused by colonizers
Columbian Exchange
The exchange of goods, ideas, and diseases between the Old and New World
Small Pox
Disease spread to the new world
Caused indigenous death alongside poor working conditions
Livestock
Europeans brought livestock (like horse) to the New World on ships.
Maize and Potatoes
Crops that were easily grown in the Americas
Europeans prized these crops because they were calorically dense and allowed people to have more energy for work
Sugar Plantations
Although sugarcane was more prominent in India, the Americas had a great climate for cultivation of sugarcane
Really hard to grow, so new supplies of slaves were needed
Potosi
Area in Bolivia with a lot of silver
Caused a need for labor
Spain milked all the $
Caused inflation in all of Europe
How did inflation affect the nobles?
Since nobles were on fixed wages, they were unable to sustain themselves during inflation
On the contrary, poorer people who had loads of debt were able to pay off their debt faster
“Price Revolution”
Dutch East India Company
Spain and Portugal were going through some internal issues…
Dutch seized the opportunity and stole spice trade from Portugal
Captured Indonesia and Sri Lanka from Portuguese
Jesuits
Group of Christians who tried to convert Japanese and Chinese
Bartolome de Las Casas
First person to speak out against indigenous exploitation
Resulted in the Crown detailing how to interact with Natives
Castas
Basically a caste system
Resulted in limits on Spanish women and sexual activity w/ natives
Spaniards → Converted Indigenous → Indigenous → Africans
de Montaigne
Thought no culture is superior
Book, “Of Cannibals”
People thought he was crazy
Lots of essays based on the idea of skepticism
Shakespeare
Wrote for Elizabeth 1st and the English court
Lots of social commentary
Painted a black man in a good light, creating a character with lots of complexity
Joint-Stock Company
ownership is represented by shares of stock.
Each shareholder owns a portion of the company proportional to the number of shares they hold.
Shares can typically be bought or sold, which provides liquidity and flexibility for investors.
Bank of Amsterdam
-played a central role in Amsterdam's rise as a major financial hub in the 17th century. It facilitated trade and commerce, providing a stable financial environment for merchants and investors.
-most similar to current banking models
Mercantilism
belief that countries should export more than import.
The idea was that a country should accumulate wealth by maintaining a trade surplus, thus bringing in more money than it spent.
taille
a form of tax imposed on the peasants of France to fund various wars (100 Years, 30 years)
People really disliked it and led to peasant uprisings
Polish Problems
Refers to the internal political and social issues faced by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, including power struggles among the nobility, external threats from neighboring states, and challenges to central authority.