Biology Unit 2 carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.

Organic Macromolecules

Large, carbon-based molecules found in all living things.

Elements present in Organic Macromolecules

Mainly carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O); smaller amounts of other elements.

Difference between Macromolecules and Inorganic molecules

Macromolecules are large and contain long hydrocarbon chains, while inorganic molecules do not have these chains.

Function of Carbohydrates

Provide energy for the body.

Examples of Carbohydrates

Sugars and starches.

Function of Lipids

Provide energy, store energy, and make up cell membranes.

Examples of Lipids

Fats, oils, phospholipids.

Function of Proteins

Provide energy, build and repair tissues, act as enzymes.

Examples of Proteins

Meat, eggs, enzymes.

Function of Nucleic Acids

Store genetic information (DNA, RNA).

Examples of Nucleic Acids

DNA, RNA.

Importance of Carbohydrates

Essential for all living things, provide quick energy.

Carbohydrates Composition Ratio

Made of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) in a 1:2:1 ratio.

Structural Role of Carbohydrates in Plants

Cellulose, key component of cell walls.

Instant Energy Source in Humans

Glycogen breaks down into glucose for quick energy.

Instant Energy Source in Plants

Starch breaks down into glucose for respiration functions.

Types of Lipids

Fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids.

Solubility of Lipids

Hydrophobic, meaning they are insoluble in water.

Function of Nucleotides in Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides are linked by covalent bonds to form RNA and DNA.

Components of Nucleotides

Five-carbon sugar, nitrogenous base, and phosphate group.

Purines

Nitrogenous bases with a 6-sided ring fused to a 5-sided ring (e.g., Adenine, Guanine).

Pyrimidines

Nitrogenous bases with a 6-sided ring (e.g., Cytosine, Thymine in DNA, Uracil in RNA).

Flow of Genetic Information

DNA → mRNA → Protein.

What do proteins make up in cells?

More than 50% of the dry mass of cells.

Monomers of Proteins

Amino acids.

Significance of Amino Acids

Building blocks of proteins; there are 20 different amino acids.

Structure of Amino Acids

Central carbon atom attached to amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen atom, and R group.

Bonding in Proteins

Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds.

Primary Structure of Proteins

The most basic structure; a single linear chain of amino acids.

Peptide Bonds Formation

Forms through condensation reaction, losing one water molecule per bond.

Secondary Structure of Proteins

Produced by coiling and folding of certain regions of a single polypeptide chain.

Alpha Helices

Coiled structure stabilized by hydrogen bonds between amino acids.

Beta Sheets

Folded regions of polypeptide chains lying side by side, stabilized by hydrogen bonds.

Role of Hydrogen Bonds in Proteins

Provide support for the protein's shape, breaking easily but repeated many times.

Tertiary Structure of Proteins

The three-dimensional, fully folded structure of a single protein molecule.

Quaternary Structure of Proteins

Formed when two or more polypeptide chains combine to form a functional protein.

Example of a Protein with Quaternary Structure

Collagen, composed of three helical subunits intertwined.

Denaturation of Proteins

Process where a protein loses its specific three-dimensional shape and becomes biologically inactive.

Consequences of Denaturation

Protein unfolds and becomes inactive.

Environmental Changes Causing Denaturation

pH changes, temperature changes, salt concentration changes, presence of alcohol, acids, or heavy metals.

Functions of Enzymes

Proteins that participate in and control metabolic reactions.

Transport Function of Proteins

Hemoglobin transports oxygen in the blood.

Defense Function of Proteins

Antibodies protect against harmful agents.

Regulation Function of Proteins

Hormones influence cell activity and body functions.

Functions of Carbohydrates

Provide 75% of the energy from our food.

Carbohydrates provide instant energy through what structure in humans?

Glycogen.

Key component of cell walls in plants

Cellulose.

Hydrophobic nature of lipids means they are

Insoluble in water.

Nucleotide structure includes what types of bases?

Purines and pyrimidines.

What maintains the specific shape of proteins in their quaternary structure?

Disulfide bridges, hydrogen bonds, and other weak interactions.

What causes a protein's function to change?

Change in its shape due to denaturation.

The process of synthesizing proteins involves which types of RNA?

mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA.

Carbohydrate ratio composition is what?

1:2:1 ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

What are the unique properties of R groups in amino acids?

Determine the characteristics and behavior of each amino acid.

What is significant about the tertiary structure of proteins?

Determines the protein's specific shape and function.

What is the primary structure of a protein composed of?

A single linear chain of amino acids connected by peptide bonds.

Examples of structural proteins include

Keratin in hair and collagen in skin.

Example of denaturation in cooking

Fried egg: clear egg white turns opaque when heated.

Why are carbohydrates sometimes criticized in diets?

Due to high sugar/starch foods.

What do lipids serve as in the body aside from energy storage?

Structural components like cell membranes.

What type of bond forms between amino acids in proteins?

Peptide bonds.

Which macromolecule stores genetic information?

Nucleic Acids.

What distinguishes macromolecules from inorganic molecules?

Macromolecules contain long hydrocarbon chains.

Carbohydrates provide energy mainly through what process?

Breaking down into glucose.

What types of bonds stabilize secondary protein structures?

Hydrogen bonds.

What structural component aids in protection for certain animals?

Chitin in arthropods.

Which carbohydrate provides quick energy in plants?

Starch.

Functions of proteins include catalyzing biochemical reactions and providing what?

Structural support.

What are the two main types of secondary structures in proteins?

Alpha helices and beta sheets.

What dictates the unique properties of each amino acid?

The R group or side chain.

What is produced during the condensation reaction in protein synthesis?

A water molecule.

Amino acids linked together form what kind of chain?

Polypeptide chain.

Disulfide bridges in proteins form when what happens?

Two cysteine amino acids bond together.

How do environmental changes affect protein structures?

They can cause denaturation and loss of function.

What role do structural proteins play in organisms?

They provide physical support in tissues.

The backbone of nucleic acids are composed of what?

Sugar and phosphate group.

Nucleic acids are mainly responsible for what function?

Storing and transmitting genetic information.

The energy stored in lipids is released through what process?

Metabolism or fat breakdown.

The primary sequence of a protein solely depends on what?

The order of amino acids.

What are the three types of RNA and their functions?

mRNA carries information, rRNA makes up ribosomes, tRNA brings amino acids.

What provides the rigidity to a protein molecule?

Peptide bonds.

In what form do lipids primarily exist in the body?

As fats or oils.

What is the purpose of glycogen in humans?

To store energy for quick access.

What is the functional form of proteins influenced by?

Its three-dimensional structure.

Collagen is known for its role in providing what?

Strength and support in connective tissues.

What happens to a protein during denaturation?

It loses its three-dimensional structure and function.

What kind of reactions occur during protein synthesis?

Condensation reactions.

What macromolecule is critical for muscle contraction and movement?

Proteins.

Which type of carbohydrate is used for short-term energy storage in animals?

Glycogen.

What forms the basis of structural components in cells like plant cell walls?

Polysaccharides.

What is the structural characteristic of lipids regarding their molecular structure?

They have long hydrocarbon chains.

Proteins are composed of how many different amino acids?

Twenty.

Enzymes are categorized as what type of macromolecule?

Proteins.

Vitamins and hormones can be classified as what type of macromolecule?

Proteins.

What is the key difference in function between carbohydrates and lipids?

Carbohydrates are primarily for energy, while lipids also serve structural roles.

What is a notable feature of RNA compared to DNA?

RNA is single-stranded, while DNA is double-stranded.

The linkage of amino acids forms what larger structure in proteins?

Polypeptide chain.

What is the simplest form of carbohydrates called?

Monosaccharides.

What is unique about triglycerides?

They are composed of glycerol and three fatty acids.

What kind of molecules do carbohydrates typically break down into for energy utilization?

Glucose.