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Types of neuron
Motor, sensory, relay
Motor neuron
Carries messages from CNS to muscles and glands
Sensory neurons
Carry messages from PNS to CNS
Relay neurons
Carry messages from sensory to motor neurons, or other relay neurons
Structure of neurons
Each neuron contains a cell body, dendrites which carry nerve impulses towards the cell body, an axon covered in myelin sheath to speed up the message, and terminal buttons that communicate with the next neuron in the chain
Synapse
Neurons do not physically touch each other but are separated by a gap called the synapse
Neurotransmitter
When the electrical signal reaches the end of a neuron synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters which relay the signal across the synapse
Excitation
Makes it more likely that the next neuron will fire
Inhibition
Making it less likely that the next neuron will fire
Axon
Carries the impulses away from the cell body down the length of the neuron, is covered in a fatty layer of myelin sheath that protects the axon and speeds up electrical transmission of the impulse
Effector
Something such as a muscle or gland which produces a response
Neural networks
Groups in which neurons communicate with each other
Synaptic vesicles
Tiny sacs that release neurotransmitters
Postsynaptic receptor site
The dendrites of the next neuron
Serotonin
Neurotransmitter that causes inhibition in the receiving neuron
Dopamine
Neurotransmitter that causes excitation in the receiving neuron
Summation
The likelihood of the cell firing, calculated by adding up the excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs.
Nervous system
The nervous system id divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Central nervous system
The CNS is made up of the brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system
The PNS is made up of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the somatic nervous system (SNS)
Autonomic nervous system
The ANS is further split into the sympathetic branch and parasympathetic branch
Endocrine system
Consists of a number of glands that send chemical messages called hormones throughout the bloodstream
Fight or flight
During stress, the endocrine system and sympathetic branch of the ANS work together to product the fight or flight response (physiological changes such as increased heart rate)
Somatic nervous system
Information to and from the senses and to and from the nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system
Generally increases bodily activities
Parasympathetic nervous system
Generally maintains or decreases bodily activities
Spinal cord
Receives and transmits information to and from the brain
Brain
Maintains life, involved in higher functions and psychological processes
Cerebral cortex
The brains outer layer which is highly developed in humans, distinguishing our higher mental functions from that of animals
Glands
Organs in the body that produce and secrete hormones to regulate many bodily functions
Pituitary gland
The major endocrine gland located in the brain, which controls the release of hormones from all the other endocrine glands in the body
Adrenaline
Released in the adrenal gland, triggers the fight or flight response in a stressful situation
Testosterone
Released in the testes, causes the development of tested in the womb, as well as creating secondary sexual characteristics during puberty
Oestrogen and progesterone
Released in the ovaries, helps to regulate the menstrual cycle. Oestrogen is involved in repairing and thickening the uterus lining whilst progesterone maintains the uterine lining
Melatonin
Regulates the sleep-wake cycle. High levels of melatonin cause drowsiness when daylight is low.
Adrenal medulla
The inner core of the adrenal glands that releases adrenaline in a fight or flight response.
Localisation of function
Different areas of the brain are responsible for different behaviours, processes or activities
Motor area
Frontal lobe, involves in regulating movement
Somatosensory area
Parietal lobe, processes sensory information such as touch
Visual area
Occipital lobe, receives and processes visual information
Auditory area
Temporal lobe, analyses speech-based information
Language areas
Broca’s areas, frontal lobe in the left hemisphere, speech production.
Wernike’s area, temporal lobe in the left hemisphere, language comprehension
Auditory Cortez
In both hemispheres, receives information from both ears which is about what sound is and its location
Motor cortex
Generates voluntary motor movements, located at the back of the frontal lobe in both hemispheres
Somatosensory cortex
Lies next to the motor cortex in the brain, where sensory information from the skin is represented. The somatosensory cortex from one side of the brain receives sensory information from the opposite side of the body
Visual cortex
There are two, one in each hemisphere, in the occipital lobe. Each eye sends information from the right visual field to the left visual cortex and from the left visual field to the right visual cortex
Area V1
An area which seems to be necessary for visual perception. Individuals with damage to this area report no vision.
Hemispheric lateralisation
Certain mental processes and behaviours are controlled or dominated by one hemisphere rather than the other (such as language)
Split brain studies
Corpus callosum cut in patients with severe epilepsy, allowing researchers to investigate the extent to which brain function is lateralised
Procedures
Image/word is projected to the right visual field (RVF) or left visual field (LVF)
Describing what you see
Pictures shown to the RVF could be described but not those to LVF because there are no language centres in the left hemisphere
Recognition by touch
Could not describe objects projected to LVF but able to select a matching objectfrom a selection of different objects using their left hand
Corpus callosum
The bridge across the two hemisphere of the brain, so that the two hemispheres can exchange information
fMFI
Measures brain activity by detecting associated changes in blood flow
EEG
A record of the brain wave patterns produced by neurons, producing characteristic patterns
ERPs
Isolating specific responses of neurons to specific stimuli or tasks
Post mortem examinations
Correlating behaviours before death with brain structures after death
Plasticity
Brain’s tendency to change and adapt (functionally and physically) as a result of experience and new learning
Functional recovery
A form of plasticity, the brains ability to redistribute or transfer functions following damage through trauma
Synaptic pruning
As we age, rarely used connections are deleted and frequently used connections are strengthened
Axonal sprouting
Undamaged axons grow new nerve endings to reconnect neurons whose links were injured or severed
Recruitment of homologous areas
Regions on opposite sides of the brain take on functions of damaged areas
Axon sprouting
The growth of new nerve endings which connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neuronal pathways
Factors affecting recovery of the brain after trauma
Age
Gender
Physical exhaustion
Stress
Alcohol consumption
Biological rhythms
The natural cycle of change in our body’s chemicals or functions. These are governed by two things- the body’s internal body clocks (endogenous pacemakers) and external changes (exogenous zeitgebers)
Circadian rhythms
A cycle in biological or psychological activity that occurs over 24 hours. These include hormone production, the sleep-wake cycle and core body temperature
Infradian rhythms
Rhythms that last more than 24 hours, such as the menstrual cycle
Untraditional rhythms
Biological rhythms lasting less than 24 hours, such as eye blinking, heartbeats, sleep patterns, breathing, pulse, appetite
SCN
The superchiasmatic nucleus- a bundle of nerve cells located in the hypothalamus, plays an important role in maintaining circadian rhythms, such as the sleep/wake cycle
Examples of exogenous zeitgebers
Light, social cues