Chapter 9 + 10

Concepts

Mental categories that help us organize and interpret information.

Prototype

The best or most typical example of a category, aiding in categorizing new instances based on similarity.

Exemplar Theory

Posits categorization by comparing new instances to all examples (exemplars) encountered, rather than a single prototype.

Availability Bias

The tendency to judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.

Conjunction Fallacy

Occurs when people think specific conditions are more probable than a single general one.

Representativeness Heuristic

A mental shortcut where people judge probabilities based on how much something resembles a typical case.

Framing Effects

Influence on decision-making based on how information is presented .

Prospect Theory

Describes how people make decisions between alternatives that involve risk, emphasizing losses over gains.

Probability of an Event

Refers to the likelihood of its occurrence, influencing behavior; often misjudged, leading to irrational decisions.

Optimism Bias

The belief that negative events are less likely to happen to oneself compared to others.

Developmental Psychology

The scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life.

Zygote

The fertilized egg that develops into an embryo and then a fetus.

Germinal Stage

The first 2 weeks of prenatal development involving rapid cell division.

Embryonic Stage

Weeks 3-8 of prenatal development, characterized by organ formation.

Fetal Stage

Week 9 until birth, characterized by growth and maturation.

Teratogens

Substances that can cause developmental malformations in a developing fetus.

Cephalocaudal Principle

Describes how development progresses from the head downward.

Proximodistal Principle

States that development proceeds from the center of the body outward.

Cognitive Development

The process by which children learn to think, reason, and use language.

Schema

A mental framework that helps organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

The process of incorporating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Altering schemas to fit new information.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's first stage (birth to 2 years) where infants learn through sensory experiences; object permanence develops.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget's second stage (2 to 7 years) involving symbolic play and manipulation of symbols, struggling with conservation.

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget's third stage (7 to 11 years) where children think logically about concrete events but struggle with abstract concepts.

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget's fourth stage (12 years and up), where individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically.

Egocentrism

The inability to differentiate between one's own perspective and that of others.

Theory of Mind

The ability to understand that others can have beliefs about the world that differ from one’s own.

False Belief Test

A test assessing whether a child can understand that others can hold beliefs different from their own.

Insufficient Theory of Mind

May contribute to challenges in social interactions seen in autism.

Moral Thinking Changes (Piaget)

realism to relativism, prescription to principles, and outcome to intent.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Preconventional, Conventional, and Postconventional stages that depict moral reasoning progress.

Preconventional Stage

Moral reasoning based on personal consequences.

Conventional Stage

Moral reasoning based on societal rules and laws.

Postconventional Stage

Moral reasoning based on abstract principles and ethical standards.

Primary Sex Characteristics

Features directly related to reproduction (e.g., ovaries and testes).

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Features not directly tied to reproduction (e.g., breast development, body hair).

Puberty Difficulties

Especially challenging for early maturing girls and late maturing boys.

Attachment

The emotional bond between a child and caregiver.

Harlow's Study

Demonstrated the importance of comfort over food in attachment formation in infant monkeys.

Attachment Styles

Secure, ambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized types of attachment behaviors.

Internal Model of Attachment

A mental representation of the attachment relationship.

Temperament

Individual differences in emotional and behavioral responses that can influence attachment.

Moral Reasoning Test

Kohlberg used moral dilemmas (like the Heinz dilemma) to assess moral reasoning.

Cognitive Decline in Older Adults

Older adults show decline in working memory and episodic memory but may maintain semantic memory.

Coping with Cognitive Decline

Older adults may rely on past experiences or use external aids to compensate for cognitive decline.

Older Adults' Reflections

They often think about their life experiences and relationships, reporting high happiness levels.

Marital Satisfaction Over Time

Often increases over time, as couples adapt and support each other.