Chapter 9 + 10

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48 Terms

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Concepts

Mental categories that help us organize and interpret information.

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Prototype

The best or most typical example of a category, aiding in categorizing new instances based on similarity.

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Exemplar Theory

Posits categorization by comparing new instances to all examples (exemplars) encountered, rather than a single prototype.

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Availability Bias

The tendency to judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.

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Conjunction Fallacy

Occurs when people think specific conditions are more probable than a single general one.

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Representativeness Heuristic

A mental shortcut where people judge probabilities based on how much something resembles a typical case.

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Framing Effects

Influence on decision-making based on how information is presented .

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Prospect Theory

Describes how people make decisions between alternatives that involve risk, emphasizing losses over gains.

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Probability of an Event

Refers to the likelihood of its occurrence, influencing behavior; often misjudged, leading to irrational decisions.

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Optimism Bias

The belief that negative events are less likely to happen to oneself compared to others.

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Developmental Psychology

The scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life.

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Zygote

The fertilized egg that develops into an embryo and then a fetus.

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Germinal Stage

The first 2 weeks of prenatal development involving rapid cell division.

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Embryonic Stage

Weeks 3-8 of prenatal development, characterized by organ formation.

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Fetal Stage

Week 9 until birth, characterized by growth and maturation.

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Teratogens

Substances that can cause developmental malformations in a developing fetus.

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Cephalocaudal Principle

Describes how development progresses from the head downward.

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Proximodistal Principle

States that development proceeds from the center of the body outward.

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Cognitive Development

The process by which children learn to think, reason, and use language.

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Schema

A mental framework that helps organize and interpret information.

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Assimilation

The process of incorporating new information into existing schemas.

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Accommodation

Altering schemas to fit new information.

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Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's first stage (birth to 2 years) where infants learn through sensory experiences; object permanence develops.

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Preoperational Stage

Piaget's second stage (2 to 7 years) involving symbolic play and manipulation of symbols, struggling with conservation.

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Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget's third stage (7 to 11 years) where children think logically about concrete events but struggle with abstract concepts.

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Formal Operational Stage

Piaget's fourth stage (12 years and up), where individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically.

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Egocentrism

The inability to differentiate between one's own perspective and that of others.

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Theory of Mind

The ability to understand that others can have beliefs about the world that differ from one’s own.

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False Belief Test

A test assessing whether a child can understand that others can hold beliefs different from their own.

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Insufficient Theory of Mind

May contribute to challenges in social interactions seen in autism.

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Moral Thinking Changes (Piaget)

realism to relativism, prescription to principles, and outcome to intent.

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Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Preconventional, Conventional, and Postconventional stages that depict moral reasoning progress.

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Preconventional Stage

Moral reasoning based on personal consequences.

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Conventional Stage

Moral reasoning based on societal rules and laws.

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Postconventional Stage

Moral reasoning based on abstract principles and ethical standards.

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Primary Sex Characteristics

Features directly related to reproduction (e.g., ovaries and testes).

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Secondary Sex Characteristics

Features not directly tied to reproduction (e.g., breast development, body hair).

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Puberty Difficulties

Especially challenging for early maturing girls and late maturing boys.

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Attachment

The emotional bond between a child and caregiver.

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Harlow's Study

Demonstrated the importance of comfort over food in attachment formation in infant monkeys.

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Attachment Styles

Secure, ambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized types of attachment behaviors.

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Internal Model of Attachment

A mental representation of the attachment relationship.

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Temperament

Individual differences in emotional and behavioral responses that can influence attachment.

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Moral Reasoning Test

Kohlberg used moral dilemmas (like the Heinz dilemma) to assess moral reasoning.

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Cognitive Decline in Older Adults

Older adults show decline in working memory and episodic memory but may maintain semantic memory.

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Coping with Cognitive Decline

Older adults may rely on past experiences or use external aids to compensate for cognitive decline.

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Older Adults' Reflections

They often think about their life experiences and relationships, reporting high happiness levels.

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Marital Satisfaction Over Time

Often increases over time, as couples adapt and support each other.