Chapter 9 + 10

Thinking

• What are concepts? What is a prototype? What is exemplar theory? How do these theories differ in explaining how we make category judgments?

  • Concepts are mental categories that help us organize and interpret information.

  • A prototype is the best or most typical example of a category, helping us to categorize new instances based on their similarity to this ideal example.

  • Exemplar theory posits that we categorize by comparing new instances to all examples (exemplars) we have encountered, rather than just to a single prototype.

• What is the availability bias? What is the conjunction fallacy? What is the representativeness heuristic? What are framing effects? What is prospect theory?

  • The availability bias is the tendency to judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.

  • The conjunction fallacy occurs when people think that specific conditions are more probable than a single general one.

  • The representativeness heuristic is a mental shortcut where people judge probabilities based on how much something resembles a typical case.

  • Framing effects refer to the influence on decision-making based on how information is presented (the "frame").

  • Prospect theory describes how people make decisions between alternatives that involve risk, emphasizing losses over gains.

• What is the probability of an event, and how does it guide human behavior? How logical or illogical do people consider probabilities in their decision-making?

  • The probability of an event refers to the likelihood of its occurrence, which influences behavior; people often misjudge probabilities leading to irrational decisions.

• How do people think about risky behavior and its future consequences? Explain how most people take more risks to avoid losses than to make gains. What is optimism bias?

  • People often perceive risky actions more favorably if they believe they can avoid potential losses; thus, they may engage in riskier behaviors to prevent loss. Optimism bias is the belief that negative events are less likely to happen to oneself compared to others.

Development

• What is developmental psychology?

  • Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life, covering physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development.

• What is a zygote? Describe the germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages of prenatal development.

  • A zygote is the fertilized egg that develops into an embryo and then a fetus. The germinal stage (first 2 weeks) involves rapid cell division; the embryonic stage (weeks 3-8) sees organ formation; the fetal stage (week 9 until birth) is characterized by growth and maturation.

• What are teratogens?

  • Teratogens are substances that can cause developmental malformations in a developing fetus, such as drugs, alcohol, infections, and environmental factors.

• What is the cephalocaudal principle? The proximodistal principle?

  • The cephalocaudal principle describes how development progresses from the head downward; the proximodistal principle states that development proceeds from the center of the body outward.

• What is cognitive development? What is a schema? What is assimilation? Accommodation?

  • Cognitive development is the process by which children learn to think, reason, and use language. A schema is a mental framework that helps organize and interpret information. Assimilation is the process of incorporating new information into existing schemas, while accommodation is altering schemas to fit new information.

• Be very familiar with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development including the main characteristics of each stage and the ages at which it occurs.

  1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years): infants learn through sensory experiences and manipulating objects; object permanence develops.

  2. Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years): children engage in symbolic play and learn to manipulate symbols; they struggle with understanding conservation (the quantity remains the same despite changes in shape).

  3. Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years): children gain a better understanding of mental operations; they can think logically about concrete events but struggle with abstract concepts.

  4. Formal operational stage (12 years and up): individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically.

• What is egocentrism? Be familiar with the false belief test. What is a theory of mind? What age does it seem to develop? How might an insufficient theory of mind be linked to autism?

  • Egocentrism is the inability to differentiate between one's own perspective and that of others. The false belief test assesses whether a child can understand that others can hold beliefs about the world that differ from their own; theory of mind typically develops around age 4 or 5. Insufficient theory of mind can contribute to challenges in social interactions seen in autism.

• What are some criticisms of Piaget’s theory?

  • Criticisms include the underestimation of children's abilities, cultural bias, and the suggestion that cognitive development is more gradual than stage-like.

• What was Lev Vygotsky’s perspective on cognitive development?

  • Vygotsky emphasized the social context of learning, suggesting that cognitive development is largely influenced by social interactions and cultural tools.

• What is attachment? What was shown in Harlow’s study? What are the different attachment styles (secure, ambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized)? What is an internal model of attachment? What is temperament and how can it influence attachment?

  • Attachment is the emotional bond between a child and caregiver. Harlow’s study with infant monkeys demonstrated the importance of comfort over food in attachment formation. Attachment styles include:

  • Secure: comfortable with proximity to caregiver.

  • Ambivalent: anxiety about caregiver’s availability; clingy.

  • Avoidant: seeks little contact; may avoid parent.

  • Disorganized: inconsistent behaviors toward the caregiver.

  • An internal model of attachment is a mental representation of the attachment relationship. Temperament can influence attachment styles by affecting how children react towards caregivers.

• What three changes did Piaget note happened to moral thinking as children got older?

  1. Shift from realism to relativism: understanding that rules can be flexible.

  2. Shift from prescription to principles: understanding the underlying principles of morality.

  3. Shift from outcome to intent: evaluating actions based on intentions rather than just outcomes.

• How did Kohlberg test moral reasoning? What is the preconventional stage? The conventional stage? The postconventional stage? Which stage emphasizes social rules? Consequences? Ethical principles? What are some criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

  • Kohlberg tested moral reasoning through moral dilemmas (like the Heinz dilemma). The stages are:

  1. Preconventional stage: moral reasoning based on personal consequences.

  2. Conventional stage: moral reasoning based on societal rules and laws.

  3. Postconventional stage: moral reasoning based on abstract principles and ethical standards. The conventional stage emphasizes social rules, and the preconventional stage emphasizes consequences. Criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory include cultural bias and a focus on male moral reasoning.

• What are primary and secondary sex characteristics? For whom is puberty especially difficult (gender? Early or late?)? Is sexual orientation linked to parenting? Does research suggest sexual orientation is a choice?

  • Primary sex characteristics are directly related to reproduction (e.g., ovaries and testes), while secondary sex characteristics are features not directly tied to reproduction (e.g., breast development, body hair). Puberty can be particularly challenging for early maturing girls and late maturing boys. Research indicates that sexual orientation is not fully understood in terms of choice and is influenced by various biological factors as well as environment.

• Which of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development occurs during adolescence? Describe it in detail.

  • The stage is Identity vs. Role Confusion, where adolescents explore different identities and develop a sense of self. Successful resolution leads to a stable identity; failure may result in confusion about one's place in society.

• On what types of tasks do older adults show cognitive decline (working memory or long-term memory? Episodic or semantic memory?) How do older adults compensate for this decline?

  • Older adults often show decline in working memory and episodic memory, while semantic memory can remain intact. They may compensate through strategies such as relying on past experiences or using external aids.

• What do older people spend their time thinking about? Are most older adults happy? Who do they prefer to spend their time with? How does marital satisfaction change over time?

  • Older adults often reflect on their life experiences and relationships, and many report high levels of happiness, especially when they maintain strong social connections. They typically prefer the company of close family and friends. Marital satisfaction often increases over time as couples adapt and support each other.