PSYC 1

What is psychology?

the scientific study of mind and behavior

What is structuralism?

understanding the conscious experience through introspection

What is functionalism?

focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment

What is the psychoanalytic theory?

focuses on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior

What is Gestalt psychology?

focuses on humans as a whole rather than individual parts

What is behaviorism?

focuses on observing and controlling behavior

What is humanism?

emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans

Wilhelm Wundt

One of the founders of psychology.
First laboratory for psychological
research.
Emphasized Structuralism.
Introspection - someone examines their
own conscious experience

William James

First American psychologist.
Psychological Laboratory.
Emphasized Functionalism.

Margaret Floy Washburn

First woman to earn a doctorate in
Psychology
Researched on animal behavior, and published an authoritative text on the subject: The Animal Mind.

Sigmund Freud

Founded Psychoanalytic
theory.
Studied "hysteria" and
neurosis.
Problems arose from the
unconscious mind.
Dream analysis.
Early childhood
experiences.

Gestalt Psychology

Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt
Koffka and Max,
Wertheimer
German psychologists
who immigrated to the
U.S. to escape Nazi
Germany.
Gestalt - "Whole"
Ideas of Gestalt continue
to influence research on
sensation and perception.

Ivan Pavlov

Discovered the concept of classical conditioning - a behavioral procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus is paired with a previously neutral stimulus. He was the guy with the dog salivating at a bell

John B. Watson

Father of behaviorism.
Believed the objective
analysis of the mind
was impossible.
Focused on observable
behavior and ways to
control behavior
Behavioral and
cognitive-behavioral
therapy.

B.F. Skinner

Used operant conditioning
Concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences.
Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment

Abraham Maslow

Proposed a
hierarchy of
human needs
in motivating
behavior.
Humanism

Carl Rogers

Client-centered
therapy
The patient taking a lead
role in the therapy
session.
Rogers believed
therapists need:
unconditional positive
regard
genuineness
empathy

Noam Chomsky

Interest in linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science.
The mind became the new focus of scientific inquiry.
Influential in beginning the cognitive revolution.

Cognitive revolution - an intellectual shift in psychology in the 1950s focusing on the internal mental processes driving human behavior. The study of human thought became interdisciplinary by directing attention to processing skills including language acquisition, memory, problem-solving, and learning. This scientific approach to understanding how the brain works moved away from behavioral psychology and embraced understanding the processes that drive behavior

Branches of Psychology

a. Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology
b. Sensation and Perception
c. Cognitive Psychology
d. Developmental Psychology
e. Personality Psychology
f. Social Psychology
g. Health Psychology
h. Industrial-Organizational Psychology
i. Sports and Exercise Psychology
j. Clinical Psychology
k. Forensic Psychology

Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

explores how our biology influences our behavior. The research interests of biological psychologists span a number of domains, including but not limited to, sensory and motor systems, sleep, drug use and abuse, ingestive behavior, reproductive behavior, neurodevelopment, plasticity of the nervous system, and biological correlates of psychological disorders.

Sensation and Perception

focus on the physical systems and psychological processes that allow us to experience the world

Cognitive Psychology

the area of psychology that focuses on studying cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to our experiences and our actions

Developmental Psychology

the scientific study of development across a lifespan. However, their focus is not limited to the physical changes associated with aging, as they also focus on changes in cognitive skills, moral reasoning, social behavior, and other psychological attributes. Focus on both childhood into adulthood and beyond adulthood and into old age

Personality Psychology

focuses on patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique. More recently, the study of personality has taken on a more quantitative approach. Rather than explaining how personality arises, research is focused on identifying personality traits, measuring these traits, and determining how these traits interact in a particular context to determine how a person will behave in any given situation.

Social Psychology

focuses on how we interact with and relate to others

Health Psychology

focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

a subfield of psychology that applies psychological theories, principles, and research findings in industrial and organizational settings

Sports and Exercise Psychology

they study the psychological aspects of sport performance, including motivation and performance anxiety, and the effects of sport on mental and emotional wellbeing

Clinical Psychology

the area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior

Forensic Psychology

a branch of psychology that deals questions of psychology as they arise in the context of the justice system

.What is required for careers in psychology?

Mainly a PhD but sometimes a masters

.Where are the majority of psychologists employed?

University

What is the top Occupation that Employs Graduates with a BA in Psychology?

Mid- and top-level management
(executive, administrator)

Why is research important?

Scientific research is empirical; it is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.
Without research, we would only have intuition and groundless assumptions.
Through research, we are able to prove certain ideas through study and testing.

Why we should think critically about claims?

We should strive to think critically about the information we encounter by exercising a degree of healthy skepticism. When someone makes a claim, we should examine the claim from a number of different perspectives: what is the expertise of the person making the claim, what might they gain if the claim is valid, does the claim seem justified given the evidence, and what do other researchers think of the claim? We should be informed consumers of the information made available to us because decisions based on this information have significant consequences.

The difference between inductive and deductive analysis

Deductive reasoning - results are predicted based on a general premise.
All living things require energy to survive (premise), ducks are living things, therefore ducks require energy to survive (conclusion).
Inductive reasoning - conclusions are drawn from observations.
You see many fruit growing on trees and therefore assume all fruit grows on trees.

The definition of theory and hypothesis

Theory - well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena.
Hypothesis - tentative and testable statement (prediction) about the relationship between two or more variables.
-Predicts how the world will behave if the theory is correct.
-Usually an "if-then" statement.
-Is falsifiable (capable of being shown to be incorrect).

Quantitative vs. qualitative research

Quantitative data are measures of values or counts and are expressed as numbers. Qualitative data are measures of 'types' and may be represented by a name, symbol, or a number code.

Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal research.

Cross-Sectional Research - Compares multiple segments of a population at a single time (such as different age groups).
Longitudinal - Studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time.

clinical or case study

Clinical or case studies focus on one individual.
The studied individual is typically in a extreme or unique psychological circumstance that differentiates them for the general public.
Allows for a lot of insight into a case.
Difficult to generalize results to the larger population.

(Naturalistic) observation

observation of behavior in its natural setting Ex: NOT when a police car is behind you

Survey

Lists of questions to be answered by research participants, and can be delivered as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally

archival research

method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships

Correlation

relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does

correlation coefficient

number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r

negative correlation

two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation

positive correlation

two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller

Correlation and Causation

correlation does not equal causation

Causation means one thing causes another—in other words, action A causes outcome B. On the other hand, correlation is simply a relationship where action A relates to action B—but one event doesn't necessarily cause the other event to happen.

confounding variable

unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables

cause-and-effect relationship

changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design.

Control and experimental groups

The experimental group gets the experimental manipulation—that is, the treatment or variable being tested (in this case, the use of technology)—and the control group does not.

Independent and dependent variables

An independent variable is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter. A dependent variable is what the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had.

Experimenter bias

researcher expectations skew the results of the study

participant bias

When a participant in a research study may consciously or unconsciously act the way they think the researcher wants them to, rather than responding naturally.

single-blind study

experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group (Controls for participant expectations).

double-blind study

experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments (Controls for both participant and experimenter expectations).

placebo effect

people's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation

Population

overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in

Sample

subset of individuals selected from the larger population

representative sample

subset of the population that accurately represents the general population

Non-representative sample

A sample that is not selected in such a way as to be representative of the population.

Role of random sampling in a representative sample

A random sample is a subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Random samples are preferred because if the sample is large enough we can be reasonably sure that the participating individuals are representative of the larger population.

Reliability vs. Validity

Reliability is consistency and reproducibility of a given result. Validity is the accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure.

Role of an Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants.
-Exist at any research institution that receives federal support for research involving human participants.
-Generally, IRB must approve research proposal before it can proceed.

informed consent

Informed consent - process of informing a research participant about what to expect during an experiment and then obtaining the person's consent to participate. Includes:
-Potential risks involved
-Implications of the research
-Notification that participation is voluntary
-Notification that any data collected will be kept confidential

Confidentiality

Furthermore, the informed consent guarantees that any data collected in the experiment will remain completely confidential.

Not shared to anyone

Doing no harm

Any experiment involving the participation of human subjects is governed by extensive, strict guidelines designed to ensure that the experiment does not result in harm.

anonymity

the condition of being anonymous

Furthermore, the informed consent guarantees that any data collected in the experiment will remain completely confidential.

The role of deception

Deception involves purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where the deception could be considered harmful. For example, if we are interested in how our opinion of someone is affected by their attire, we might use deception in describing the experiment to prevent that knowledge from affecting participants' responses.

Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment

Ethical guidelines have not always existed.
In 1932, participants were recruited in an experiment studying syphilis in black men.
Participants that tested positive were not informed that they had the disease.
Although no cure existed at the beginning of the study, a cure was found in 1947 (penicillin), but it was not administered to participants.
Many participants unknowingly spread the disease and many died.

How should animals be treated in experiments?

Researchers must design their experiments to minimize any pain or distress experienced by animals serving as research subjects.

Genetics

The scientific study of heredity

Biopsychology

explores the biological mechanisms that underlie behavior

Gene

sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical characteristics known as traits (eye color, hair color etc).

A gene may have multiple possible variations or alleles (a specific version of a gene).

A specific gene may code for hair color and the different alleles of that gene affect what the hair color will be

DNA

helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs.

Chromosome

long stand of genetic information known as DNA

Genotype vs. Phenotype

Genotype \-- refers to the genetic makeup of an individual based on the genetic material (DNA) inherited from one's parents.

Phenotype \-- describes an individual's observable characteristics, such as hair color, skin color, height, and build.

Human Genome Project

Genome - Complete set of DNA
The genetic difference between individuals.
Contributes to a species' adaptation to its environment.
Begins when an egg (containing 23 chromosomes) is fertilized by a sperm (containing 23 chromosomes).

The Human Genome Project was a landmark global scientific effort whose signature goal was to generate the first sequence of the human genome.

In 2003, the Human Genome Project produced a genome sequence that accounted for over 90% of the human genome. It was as close to complete as the technologies for sequencing DNA allowed at the time.

The project was critical for advancing policies and earning increased support for the open sharing of scientific data.

Concerns and questions about sequencing the human genome helped to usher in a greater emphasis on ethics in biomedical research.

The project was atypical for biomedical research, in that the researchers' work was driven by a desire to explore an unknown part of the biological world — as opposed to first formulating a theory or hypothesis.

1990-2003

How does understanding genetics help us understand human behavior?

Psychological researchers study genetics in order to better understand the biological factors that contribute to certain behaviors. While all humans share certain biological mechanisms, we are each unique. And while our bodies have many of the same parts—brains and hormones and cells with genetic codes—these are expressed in a wide variety of behaviors, thoughts, and reactions.

The genetic environment interaction

situation in which the effects of genes depend on the environment in which they are expressed

Nature and nurture work together like complex pieces of a human puzzle.
The interaction of our environment and genes makes us the individuals we are.
There are many ways to look at this interaction.

range of reaction

asserts our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall.

genetic environmental correlation

view of gene-environment interaction that asserts our genes affect our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes.

Epigenitics

study of gene-environment interactions such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes.

How many neurons are in the brain?

roughly 86 billion

Neuron Structure

Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their role and location. However, nearly all neurons have three essential parts: dendrites, a cell body, and an axon.

Dendrites are fibrous roots that branch out from the cell body. Like antennae, dendrites receive and process signals from the axons of other neurons. Neurons can have more than one set of dendrites, known as dendritic trees. How many they have generally depends on their role.

Cell body, also known as a soma, the cell body is the neuron's core. The cell body carries genetic information, maintains the neuron's structure, and provides energy to drive activities. Like other cell bodies, a neuron's soma contains a nucleus and specialized organelles. It's enclosed by a membrane which both protects it and allows it to interact with its immediate surroundings.

Axon is a long, tail-like structure which joins the cell body at a specialized junction called the axon hillock. Many axons are insulated with a fatty substance called myelin. Myelin helps axons to conduct an electrical signal. Neurons generally have one

Structure of neurons picture

Synapses

In a chemical synapse, action potentials affect other neurons via a gap between neurons called a synapse. Synapses consist of a presynaptic ending, a synaptic cleft, and a postsynaptic ending.

(When an action potential is generated, it's carried along the axon to a presynaptic ending. This triggers the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. These molecules cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors in the postsynaptic ending of a dendrite.
Neurotransmitters can excite the postsynaptic neuron, causing it to generate an action potential of its own. Alternatively, they can inhibit the postsynaptic neuron, in which case it doesn't generate an action potential.)

Electrical synapses can only excite. They occur when two neurons are connected via a gap junction. This gap is much smaller than a synapse, and includes ion channels which facilitate the direct transmission of a positive electrical signal. As a result, electrical synapses are much faster than chemical synapses. However, the signal diminishes from one neuron to the next, making them less effective at transmitting.

Neurotransmitters

chemical messenger of the nervous system.

How are neurotransmitters transmitted across the synapse?

In healthy individuals, the neuronal signal moves rapidly down the axon to the terminal buttons, where synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft (Figure 3.9). The synaptic cleft is a very small space between two neurons and is an important site where communication between neurons occurs. Once neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft, they travel across it and bind with corresponding receptors on the dendrite of an adjacent neuron. Receptors, proteins on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach, vary in shape, with different shapes "matching" different neurotransmitters.

What causes a neuron to fire?

A neuron fires when it receives an electrical or chemical signal from another neuron.

How does reuptake relate to the neurotransmitter?

Reuptake involves the neurotransmitter being pumped back into the neuron that released it, in order to clear the synapse

major neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine

Involved in muscle action, memory

Increased arousal, enhanced cognition

major neurotransmitters: Beta-endorphin

Involved in pain, pleasure

Decreased anxiety, decreased tension

major neurotransmitters: dopamine

Involved in mood, sleep, learning

Increased pleasure, suppressed appetite

major neurotransmitters: Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Involved in brain function, sleep

Decreased anxiety, decreased tension

major neurotransmitters: Glutamate

Involved in memory, learning

Increased learning, enhanced memory

major neurotransmitters: Norepinephrine

Involved in heart, intestines, alertness

Increased arousal, suppressed appetite

major neurotransmitters: serotonin

Involved in mood, sleep

Modulated mood, suppressed appetite

psychotropic medications

drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance

agonist vs antagonist drugs

Agonist: An agonist is a drug that binds to the receptor, producing a similar response to the intended chemical and receptor.
Antagonist: a drug that binds to the receptor either on the primary site, or on another site, which all together stops the receptor from producing a response.